MA:      y;,  OF 

AMERICAN 
GRAP- 


Ube  tRural  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


MANUAL   OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


Ube  IRural  /Manuals 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

J* 

MANUAL  OF  GARDENING  —  Bailey 
MANUAL  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  —  Harper 
FARM  AND  GARDEN  RULE-BOOK  —  Bailey 
MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  INSECTS  —  Slingerland  arid  Crosby 
MANUAL  OF  WEEDS  —  Georgia 
THE  PRUNING-MANUAL  —  Bailey 
MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  DISEASES  —  Hesler  and  Whetzel 
MANUAL  OF  MILK  PRODUCTS  —  Stocking 
MANUAL  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDEN  INSECTS  —  Crosby 

and  Leonard 

MANUAL  OF  TREE  DISEASES  —  RanMn 
MANUAL  OF  HOME-MAKING  —  Van  Rensselaer,  Rose, 

and  Canon 
MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING  —  Hedrick 


MANUAL  OF 

AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 


BY 

U.   P.   HEDRICK 


HORTICULTURIST    OF    THE    NEW   YORK    AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Nefo  gorfe 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1919 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTEIGHT,   1919, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  June,  1919. 


Nortooofc 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

SEVENTY-NINE  books  on  grapes  enrich  the  pomology  of 
North  America,  not  counting  numerous  state  and  national 
publications.  Pomological  writers  in  America  have  been 
partial  to  the  grape,  for  other  fruits  do  not  fare  nearly  so  well. 
Twenty-two  books  are  devoted  to  the  strawberry,  fourteen  to 
the  apple,  to  the  peach  nine,  cranberry  eight,  plum  five,  pear 
nine,  quince  two,  loganberry  one,  while  the  cherry,  raspberry, 
and  blackberry  are  not  once  separated  from  other  fruits  in 
special  books.  Thus,  though  a  comparative  newcomer  among 
the  fruits  of  the  country,  the  grape  has  been  singled  out  for  a 
treatise  more  times  than  all  other  fruits  of  temperate  climates 
combined  —  seventy-nine  books  on  the  grape,  seventy  on 
all  other  fruits. 

This  statement  of  partiality  does  not  lead  to  an  apology  for 
a  new  book  on  the  grape.  There  is  urgent  need  for  a  new  book. 
But  three  of  the  seventy-nine  treatises  on  this  fruit  are  con- 
temporary, and  all  but  one,  a  handbook  on  training,  are  records 
from  vanished  minds.  Methods  change  so  rapidly  and  varieties 
multiply  so  fast,  that  to  keep  pace  there  must  be  new  books  on 
fruits  every  few  years.  Besides,  the  types  of  grapes  are  so 
diverse,  and  different  soils,  climates,  and  treatments  produce 
such  widely  dissimilar  results,  that  many  books  are  required  to 
do  justice  to  this  fruit  —  the  vineyarjd  should  be  seen  through 
many  eyes. 

Commercial  grape-growing  is  now  a  great  industry  in  America, 
and  deserves  a  treatise  of  its  own.  But  there  are  also  many 
demands  for  information  on  grape-growing  by  those  who  grow 
fruits  for  pleasure,  especially  by  those  who  are  escaping  from 

v 

4794  IJ> 


vi  PREFACE 

cities  to  suburban  homes,  for  the  grape  is  a  favorite  fruit  of 
the  amateur.  And  so,  though  Pleasure  and  Profit  are  a  hard 
team  to  drive  together,  this  manual  is  written  for  both  com- 
mercial and  amateur  grape-growers. 

In  particular,  the  needs  of  the  amateur  are  recognized  in  the 
chapter  on  varieties,  where  many  sorts  are  described  which 
have  little  or  no  commercial  value.  No  other  fruit  offers  the 
enchantment  of  novelty  to  be  found  in  the  grape.  Alluring 
flavors,  sizes,  and  colors  abound,  of  which  the  amateur  wants 
samples.  The  commercial  grower  who  plants  but  one  variety 
often  finds  himself  dissatisfied  with  the  humdrum  of  the 
business.  He  should  emulate  the  amateur  and  plant  more 
kindSj  if  only  for  pleasure,  remembering  the  adage,  "No 
profit  grows  where  is  no  pleasure  ta'en."  Greater  pleasure  in 
grape-growing,  then,  is  offered  as  the  justification  of  the  long 
chapter  on  varieties. 

At  the  risk  of  too  broad  spreading,  the  author  discusses,  in 
a  book  mainly  devoted  to  native  grapes,  the  culture  of  European 
grapes  in  the  far  West.  The  chief  aim  is,  of  course,  to  set  forth 
information  that  will  be  helpful  to  growers  of  these  grapes  in 
the  western  states,  there  being  no  treatises  to  which  western 
growers  can  refer,  other  than  bulletins  from  state  and  national 
agricultural  institutions.  There  is,  however,  another  reason 
for  attempting  to  cover  the  whole  field  of  grape-growing  in 
America.  It  is  certain  that  eastern  grape-growers  will  some- 
time grow  European  grapes.  Western  vineyards  might  well 
be  enlarged  with  plantings  of  native  grapes.  On  the  sup- 
position, then,  that  the  culture  of  both  European  and  native 
grapes  is  to  become  less  and  less  restricted  in  America,  the 
author  has  ventured  to  discuss  the  culture  of  all  grapes  for  all 
parts  of  North  America. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  manual,  the  author's  "The  Grapes 
of  New  York/'  a  book  long  out  of  print  and  never  widely 
distributed,  has  been  laid  under  heavy  contribution,  especially 


PREFACE  vii 

in  the  description  of  varieties.  Acknowledgments  are  due  to 
F.  Z.  Hartzell  for  reading  the  chapter  on  Grape  Pests  and 
their  Control  and  for  furnishing  most  of  the  photographs  used 
in  making  illustrations  of  insects  and  fungi;  to  F.  E.  Gladwin 
for  similar  help  in  preparing  the  two  chapters  on  pruning 
and  training  the  grape  in  eastern  America;  to  Frederic  T. 
Bioletti  for  permission  to  republish  from  a  bulletin  written  by 
him  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  California 
almost  the  whole  chapter  on  Grape  Pruning  on  the  Pacific 
Slope ;  and  to  O.  M.  Taylor  and  to  R.  D.  Anthony  for  very 
material  assistance  in  reading  the  manuscript  and  proofs. 

U.  P.  HEDRICK. 

GENEVA,  N.  Y., 

Jan.  1,  1919. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  THE  DOMESTICATION  OF  THE  GRAPE          ....  1 

II  GRAPE  REGIONS  AND  THEIR  DETERMINANTS      ...  16 

III  PROPAGATION 36 

IV  STOCKS  AND  RESISTANT  VINES 61 

V  THE  VINEYARD  AND  ITS  MANAGEMENT      ....  73 

VI  FERTILIZERS  FOR  GRAPES 97 

VII  PRUNING  THE  GRAPE  IN  EASTERN  AMERICA      .        .        .  108 

VIII  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE  IN  EASTERN  AMERICA     .        .        .  123 

IX  GRAPE-PRUNING  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST    ....  150 

X  EUROPEAN  GRAPES  IN  EASTERN  AMERICA         .        .        .  184 

XI  GRAPES  UNDER  GLASS         .        .        .        .                .        .  192 

XII  GRAPE  PESTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 204 

XIII  MARKETING  GRAPES 230 

XIV  GRAPE  PRODUCTS 250 

XV  GRAPE  BREEDING 273 

XVI  MISCELLANIES 284 

XVII  GRAPE  BOTANY 300 

XVIII  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES  .        .        .        .330 


IX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

I.    Two  views  of  vineyards  in  California ;  a  vineyard  in  the 
orchard  region  of  central  California,  and  a  vineyard  in 

southern  California        . 14 

II.    Fitting  the  land  for  planting     . 34 

III.  Cover-crop ;  cow-horn  turnips,  and  rye    ....  48 

IV.  A  well-tilled  vineyard  of  Concords 60 

V.    Vinifera  grapes  grown  out  of  doors  in  New  York ;  Mal- 

vasia  and  Chasselas  Golden 72 

VI.    Black  Hamburg .82 

VII.    Barry.     Delaware 96 

VIII.    Brighton 106 

IX.    Campbell  Early .114 

X.    Clinton 122 

XI.    Concord 138 

XII.    Diana 148 

XIII.  Dutchess 164 

XIV.  Eaton 182 

XV.    Eclipse 190 

XVI.    Elvira 202 

XVII.    Empire  State 218 

XVIII.    Herbert 228 

XIX.    lona '    .        .        .        .248 

XX.    Isabella 272 

XXI.    Jefferson 282 

XXII.    Lindley.     Lucile 298 

XXIII.  Lutie.     Pocklington 328 

XXIV.  Moore  Early 340 

xi 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLL'STRATIOXS 

PLATE  PAGE 

XXV.  Muscat  Hamburg 350 

XXVI.  Niagara     ....  ....  360 

XXVII.  Salem        ...  370 

XXVIII.  Triumph  ....  ....  380 

XXIX.  Vergennes 390 

XXX.  Winchell 400 

XXXI.  Worden 416 

XXXII.  Wyoming  .  432 

FIGURES  IX   THE  TEXT 

FIGUBZ 

1.  A  shoot  of  Fifw  rinifera 

2.  A  shoot  of  Vitis  Labrusca 

3.  A  shoot  of  Vitis  rotundifolia 

4.  A  shoot  of  Vitis  (Estivali* 

5.  A  shoot  of  Vitis  rulpina 

6.  Planting  cuttings 

7.  A  cutting  beginning  growth 

8.  Cutting  off  the  trunk 

9.  Cutting  the  cleft 

10.  Inserting  the  cion 

11.  The  completed  graft  

12.  Bench-grafted  cuttings  of  grape,  showing  the  cleft-graft   and 

the  whip-graft.     (Adapted  from  Husmann)     .... 

13.  Vine  ready  for  pruning 

14.  A  "go-devil"  for  collecting  primings 

15.  A  trellis  and  a  common  method  of  bracing  end  posts 

16.  Chautauqua  training ;   vine  ready  to  prune          .... 

17.  Keuka  method  of  training 

18.  Single-stem  four-cane  Kniffin  training 

19.  Umbrella  method  of  training 

20.  Two-trunk  Kniffin  training 

21.  Rotundifolia  vines  trained  by  the  overhead  method 

22.  A  Rotundifolia  vine  trained  by  the  6-arm  renewal  method 

23.  Forms  of  head  pruning 

24.  Forms  of  head  pruning 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

FIGURE  ?A-Z 

25.  Head  pruning :   fan-shaped  head ;   fruit  canes  tied  to  horizontal 

trellis 156 

_      -ingle  vertical  cordon  with  fruit-spurs 157 

27.  Unilateral  horizontal  cordon  with  fruit-spurs       ....  158 

28.  Three-year-old  vine  ready  for  pruning 169 

29.  Vine  of  Fig.  28  after  pruning  for  vase-formed  head      .         .        .  169 

30.  Three-year-old  vines :   A,  pruned  for  a  vase-formed,  and  B,  for 

a  fan-shaped  head             170 

31.  Four-year-old  vine  pruned  for  vase-formed  head          .         .        .  171 

32.  Four-year-old  vine  pruned  for  high  vase-formed  head  .        .  172 

33.  Fan-shaped  vines :  A,  before  pruning ;  B,  after  pruning     .         .  173 

34.  Vertical  cordon,  young  vine  pruned              176 

35.  Unilateral  horizontal  cordon  with  half-long  pruning    .         .         .  177 

36.  Leaf-galls  of  the  phylloxera 205 

37.  The  grape  root-worm 207 

38.  Root-worm  beetle 207 

39.  Injuries  caused  by  beetles  of  the  grape  root-worm      .        .        .  207 

40.  Eggs  of  grape-vine  flea-beetle 209 

41.  First  four  stages  of  the  grape  leaf-hopper 212 

42.  The  fifth  and  the  mature  stages  of  the  grape  leaf -hopper  .        .  212 

43.  A  bunch  of  grapes  despoiled  by  the  grape-berry  moth        .         .  ,  214 

44.  Work  of  black-rot  of  the  grape 219 

45.  Grapes  attacked  by  downy-mildew 221 

46.  Packing  grapes  on  a  packing-table 234 

47.  Climax  baskets  in  two  sues 236 

48.  William  Robert  Prince 274 

49.  E.  S.  Rogers 275 

50.  T.  V.  Munson 277 

51.  Staminate  and  perfect  flower  clusters  on  one  vine        .        .        .  285 

52.  Ringing   grape-vines ;     showing   tools   for   ringing   and  ringed 

vines •*....  292 

53.  A  grape  flower ;   showing  the  opening  cap  and  stamens       .        .  305 

54.  Grape  flowers;  showing  upright  and  depressed  stamens      .        .  306 


MANUAL   OF    AMERICAN    GRAPE- 
GROWING 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  DOMESTICATION  OF  THE  GRAPE 

THE  domestication  of  an  animal  or  a  plant  is  a  milestone  in 
the  advance  of  agriculture  and  so  becomes  of  interest  to  every 
human  being.  But,  more  particularly,  the  materials,  the  events 
and  the  men  who  direct  the  work  of  domestication  are  of  interest 
to  those  who  breed  and  care  for  animals  and  plants ;  the  grape- 
grower  should  find  much  profit  in  the  story  of  the  domestication 
of  the  grape.  What  was  the  raw  material  of  a  fruit  known  since 
the  beginning  of  agriculture  and  wherever  temperate  fruits  are 
grown  ?  How  has  this  material  been  fashioned  into  use  ?  Who 
were  the  originative  and  who  the  directive  agents  ?  These  are 
fundamental  questions  in  the  improvement  of  the  grape,  answers 
to  which  will  also  throw  much  light  on  the  culture  of  it. 

Botanists  number  from  forty  to  sixty  species  of  grapes  in  the 
world.  These  are  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, all  but  a  few  being  found  in  temperate  countries.  Thus, 
more  than  half  of  the  named  species  come  from  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  while  nearly  all  of  "the  others  are  from 
China  and  Japan,  with  but  one  species  certainly  growing  wild 
in  southwestern  Asia  and  bordering  parts  of  Europe.  All  true 
grapes  have  more  or  less  edible  fruits,  and  of  the  twenty  or 
more  species  grown  in  the  New  World  more  than  half  have  been 
or  are  being  domesticated.  Of  the  Old  World  grapes,  only  one 
B  1 


OK:AMERI3AN  GRAPE-GROWING 

species  is  cultivated  for  fruit,  but  this,  of  all  grapes,  is  of 
greatest  economic  importance  and,  therefore,  deserves  first 
consideration. 

THE  EUROPEAN  GRAPE 

The  European  grape,  Vitis  vinifera  (Fig.  1),  is  the  grape  of 
ancient  and  modern  agriculture.  It  is  the  vine  which  Noah 
planted  after  the  Deluge ;  the  vine  of  Israel  and  of  the  Promised 
Land ;  the  vine  of  the  parables  in  the  New  Testament.  It  is  the 
grape  and  the  vine  of  the  myths,  fables,  poetry  and  prose  of  all 
peoples.  It  is  the  grape  from  which  the  wines  of  the  world  are 
made.  From  it  come  the  raisins  of  the  world.  It  is  the  chief 
agricultural  crop  of  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa  and 
of  vast  regions  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  having  followed 
civilized  man  from  place  to  place  in  all  temperate  climates. 
The  European  grape  has  so  impressed  itself  on  the  human  mind 
that  when  one  thinks  or  speaks  of  the  grape,  or  of  the  vine,  it  is 
this  Old  World  species,  the  vine  of  antiquity,  that  presents  itself. 

The  written  records  of  the  cultivation  of  the  European  grape 
go  back  five  or  six  thousand  years.  The  ancient  Egyptians, 
Phoenicians,  Greeks  and  Romans  grew  the  vine  and  made  wine 
from  its  fruit.  Grape  seeds  have  been  found  in  the  remains  of 
European  peoples  of  prehistoric  times,  showing  that  primitive 
men  enlivened  their  scanty  fare  with  wild  grapes.  Cultivation 
of  the  grape  in  the  Old  World  probably  began  in  the  region  about 
the  Caspian  Sea  where  the  vine  has  always  run  wild.  We  have 
proof  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the  grape  in  Egypt,  for  its  seeds 
are  found  entombed  with  the  oldest  mummies.  Probably  the 
Phoenicians,  the  earliest  navigators  on  the  Mediterranean, 
carried  the  grape  from  Egypt  and  Syria  to  Greece,  Rome  and 
other  countries  bordering  on  this  sea.  The  domestication  of 
the  grape  was  far  advanced  in  Christ's  time,  for  Pliny,  writing 
then,  describes  ninety-one  kinds  of  grapes  and  fifty  kinds  of 
wine. 


THE   DOMESTICATION   OF   THE   GRAPE  3 

It  can  never  be  known  exactly  when  the  European  grape  came 
under  cultivation.  There  is  no  word  as  to  what  were  the 
methods  and  processes  of  domestication,  and  whose  the  minds 
and  hands  that  remodeled  the  wild  grape  of  Europe  into  the 


. 


FIQ.  1.     A  shoot  of  Vitia  vinifera. 


4  MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

grape  of  the  vineyards.  The  Old  World  grape  was  domesti- 
cated long  before  the  faint  traditions  which  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  our  day  could  possibly  have  arisen.  For  knowledge 
of  how  wild  species  of  this  fruit  have  been  and  may  be  brought 
under  cultivation,  we  must  turn  to  New  World  records. 

• 

AMERICAN  GRAPES 

Few  other  plants  in  the  New  World  grow  wild  under  such 
varied  conditions  and  over  such  extended  areas  as  the  grape. 
Wild  grapes  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  New  Brunswick ; 
on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes ;  everywhere  in  the  wood- 
lands of  the  North  and  Middle  Atlantic  states ;  on  the  limestone 
soils  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  the  Virginias;  and  they 
thrive  in  the  sandy  woods,  sea  plains  and  reef-keys  of  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states.  While  not  so  common  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  yet  some  kind  of  wild  grape  is  found  from 
North  Dakota  to  Texas;  grapes  grow  on  the  mountains  and 
in  the  canons  of  all  the  Rocky  Mountain  states;  and  several 
species  thrive  on  the  Mexican  borders  and  in  the  far  Southwest. 

While  it  is  possible  that  all  American  grapes  have  descended 
from  an  original  species,  the  types  are  now  as  diverse  as  the 
regions  they  inhabit.  The  wild  grapes  of  the  forests  have 
long  slender  trunks  and  branches,  whereby  their  leaves  are 
better  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  Two  shrubby  species  do  not 
attain  a  greater  height  than  four  or  five  feet;  these  grow  in 
sandy  soils,  or  among  rocks  exposed  to  sun  and  air.  Another 
runs  on  the  ground  and  bears  foliage  almost  evergreen.  The 
stem  of  one  species  attains  a  diameter  of  a  foot,  bearing  its 
foliage  in  a  great  canopy.  From  this  giant  form  the  species 
vary  to  slender,  graceful,  climbing  vines.  Wild  grapes  are  as 
varied  in  climatic  adaptations  as  in  structure  of  vine  and  grow 
luxuriantly  in  every  condition  of  heat  or  cold,  wetness  or  dry- 
ness,  capable  of  supporting  fruit-culture  in  America.  So 


THE  DOMESTICATION  OF   THE  GRAPE  5 

many  of  the  kinds  have  horticultural  possibilities  that  it  seems 
certain  that  some  grape  can  be  domesticated  in  all  of  the  agri- 
cultural regions  of  the  country,  their  natural  plasticity  indi- 
cating, even  if  it  were  not  known  from  experience,  that  all  can 
be  domesticated. 

Leif  the  Lucky,  the  first  European  to  visit  America,  if  the 
Icelandic  records  are  true,  christened  the  new  land  Wineland. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  this  designation  was  given  for  the 
grapes,  but  recent  investigations  show  that  the  fruits  were 
probably  mountain  cranberries.  Captain  John  Hawkins,  who 
visited  the  Spanish  settlements  in  Florida  in  1565,  mentions 
wild  grapes  among  the  resources  of  the  New  World.  Amadas 
and  Barlowe,  sent  out  by  Raleigh  in  1584,  describe  the  coasts 
of  the  Carolinas  as,  "  so  full  of  grapes  that  in  all  the  world  like 
abundance  cannot  be  found. "  Captain  John  Smith,  writing 
in  1606,  describes  the  grapes  of  Virginia  and  recommends  the 
culture  of  the  vine  as  an  industry  for  the  newly  founded  colony. 
Few,  indeed,  are  the  explorers  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  who  do 
not  mention  grapes  among  the  plants  of  the  country.  Yet 
none  saw  intrinsic  value  in  these  wild  vines.  To  the  Europeans, 
the  grapes  of  the  Old  World  alone  were  worth  cultivating, 
and  the  vines  growing  everywhere  in  America  only  suggested 
that  the  grape  they  had  known  across  the  sea  might  be  grown 
in  the  new  home. 

That  American  viticulture  must  depend  on  the  native  species 
for  its  varieties  began  to  be  recognized  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  several  large  companies  engaged  in 
growing  foreign  grapes  failed,  and  a  meritorious  native  grape 
made  its  appearance.  The  vine  of  premise  was  a  variety 
known  as  the  Alexander.  Thomas  Jefferson,  ever  alert  for 
the  agricultural  welfare  of  the  nation,  writing  in  1809  to  John 
Adlum,  one  of  the  first  experimenters  with  an  American  species, 
voiced  the  sentiment  of  grape  experimenters  in  speaking  of 
the  Alexander :  "  I  think  it  will  be  well  to  push  the  culture 


6  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

of  this  grape  without  losing  time  and  efforts  in  the  search  of 
foreign  vines,  which  it  will  take  centuries  to  adapt  to  our  soil 
and  climate." 


FIG.  2.     A  shoot  of  Vitis  Labrusca. 


Alexander  is  an  offshoot  of  the  common  fox-grape,  Vitis 
Labrusca  (Fig.  2),  found  in  the  woods  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
Maine  to  Georgia  and  occasionally  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
history  of  the  variety  dates  back  to  before  the  Revolutionary 


THE  DOMESTICATION  OF   THE  GRAPE  7 

War,  when,  according  to  William  Bartram,  the  Quaker  botanist, 
it  was  found  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  by  John 
Alexander,  gardener  to  Governor  Penn  of  Pennsylvania. 
Curiously  enough,  it  came  into  general  cultivation  through 
the  deception  of  a  nurseryman.  Peter  Legaux,  a  French- 
American  grape-grower,  in  1801  sold  the  Kentucky  Vineyard 
Society  fifteen  hundred  grape  cuttings  which  he  said  had  been 
taken  from  an  European  grape  introduced  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  therefore  called  the  "Cape"  grape.  Legaux's 
grape  turned  out  to  be  the  Alexander.  In  the  new  home  the 
spurious  Cape  grew  wonderfully  well  and  as  the  knowledge  of 
its  fruitfulness  in  Kentucky,  Ohio  and  Indiana  spread,  demand 
for  it  increased,  and  with  remarkable  rapidity,  considering 
the  time,  it  came  into  general  cultivation  in  the  parts  of  the 
United  States  then  settled. 

The  Labrusca  or  fox-grapes. 

Of  the  several  species  of  American  grapes  now  under  culti- 
vation, the  Labrusca,  first  represented  by  the  Alexander,  has 
furnished  more  cultivated  varieties  than  all  the  other  American 
species  together,  no  less  than  five  hundred  of  its  varieties  hav- 
ing been  grown  in  the  vineyards  of  the  country.  There  are 
several  reasons  why  it  is  the  most  generally  cultivated  species. 
It  is  native  to  the  parts  of  the  United  States  in  which  agriculture 
soonest  advanced  to  a  state  where  fruits  were  desired.  In  the 
wild,  the  Labruscas  are  the  most  attractive,  being  largest  and 
handsomest  in  color ;  among  all  grapes  it  alone  shows  black-, 
white-  and  red-fruited  forms  on  wild  vines.  There  is  a  northern 
and  a  southern  form  of  the  species,  and  its  varieties  are,  there- 
fore, widely  adapted  to  climates  and  to  soils.  The  flavor  of 
the  fruits  of  this  species,  all  things  considered,  is  rather  better 
than  that  of  any  other  of  our  wild  grapes,  though  the  skins 
in  most  of  its  varieties  have  a  peculiar  aroma,  somewhat  pro- 
nounced in  the  well-known  Concord,  Niagara  and  Worden, 


8  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

which  is  disagreeable  to  tastes  accustomed  to  the  pure  flavors 
of  the  European  grapes.  All  Labruscas  submit  well  to  vineyard 
operations  and  are  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive,  though 
they  are  more  subject  to  the  dreaded  phylloxera  than  are  most 
of  the  other  cultivated  native  species.  Of  the  many  grapes 
of  this  type,  at  least  two  deserve  brief  historical  mention. 

Catawba,  probably  a  pure-bred  Labrusca,  the  first  American 
grape  of  commercial  importance,  is  the  most  interesting  variety 
of  its  species.  The  origin  of  the  variety  is  not  certainly  known, 
but  all  evidence  points  to  its  having  been  found  about  the  year 
1800  on  the  banks  of  the  Catawba  River,  North  Carolina. 
It  was  introduced  into  general  cultivation  by  Major  John 
Adlum,  soldier  of  the  Revolution,  judge,  surveyor  and  author 
of  the  first  American  book  on  grapes.  Adlum  maintained 
an  experimental  vineyard  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  whence 
in  1823  he  began  the  distribution  of  the  Catawba.  At  that 
time  the  center  of  American  grape  culture  was  about  Cincin- 
nati, and  an  early  shipment  of  Adlum's  Catawbas  went  to 
Nicholas  Longworth  of  that  city  and  was  by  him  distributed 
throughout  the  grape-growing  centers  of  the  country.  As 
one  of  the  first  to  test  new  varieties  of  American  grapes,  to 
grow  them  largely  and  to  make  wine  commercially  from  them, 
Nicholas  Longworth  is  known  as  the  "  father  of  American 
grape  culture." 

Catawba  is  still  one  of  the  four  leading  varieties  in  the  vine- 
yards of  eastern  America.  The  characters  whereby  its  high 
place  is  maintained  among  grapes  are :  Great  elasticity  of 
constitution,  by  reason  of  which  the  vine  is  adapted  to  many 
environments ;  rich  flavor,  long-keeping  quality,  and  hand- 
some appearance  of  fruit,  qualities  which  make  it  a  very  good 
dessert  grape;  high  sugar-content  and  a  rich  flavor  of  juice, 
so  that  from  its  fruit  is  made  a  very  good  wine  and  a  very  good 
grape-juice;  and  vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness  of  vine. 
The  characters  of  Catawba  are  readily  transmissible,  and  it 


THE   DOMESTICATION   OF    THE   GRAPE  9 

has  many  pure-bred  or  hybrid  offspring  which  more  or  less 
resemble  it. 

The  second  commercial  grape  of  importance  in  American 
viticulture  is  Concord,  which  came  from  the  seed  of  a  wild 
grape  planted  in  the  fall  of  1843  by  Ephraim  W.  Bull,  Concord, 
Massachusetts.  The  new  variety  was  disseminated  in  the 
spring  of  1854,  and  from  the  time  of  its  introduction  the  spread 
of  its  culture  was  phenomenal.  By  1860  it  was  the  leading 
grape  in  America  and  it  so  remains.  Concord  furnishes,  with 
the  varieties  that  have  sprung  from  it,  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
the  grapes  grown  in  eastern  America.  The  characters  which 
distinguish  the  vine  are :  Adaptability  to  various  soils,  fruit- 
fulness,  hardiness  and  resistance  to  diseases  and  insects.  The 
fruits  are  distinguished  by  certainty  of  maturity,  attractive 
appearance,  good  but  not  high  flavor,  and  by  the  fact  that 
they  may  be  produced  so  cheaply  that  no  other  grape  can  com- 
pete with  this  variety  in  the  markets.  Concord  is,  as  Horace 
Greeley  well  denominated  it  in  awarding  the  Greeley  prize 
for  the  best  American  grape,  "the  grape  for  the  millions." 

The  histories  of  these  two  grapes  are  typical  of  those  of  five 
hundred  or  more  other  Labruscas.  Out  of  a  prodigious  num- 
ber of  native  seedlings,  an  occasional  one  is  found  greatly  to 
excel  its  fellows  and  is  brought  under  cultivation. 

The  Rotundifolia  or  Muscadine  grapes. 

Long  before  the  northern  Labruscas  had  attained  prominence 
in  the  vineyards  of  the  North,  a  grape  had  been  domesticated 
partially  in  the  South.  It  is  Vitis  rotundifolia  (Fig.  3),  a  species 
which  runs  riot  from  the  Potomac  to  the  Gulf,  thriving  in  many 
diverse  soils,  but  growing  only  in  the  southern  climate  and 
preferring  the  seacoast.  Rotundifolia  grapes  have  been  culti- 
vated somewhat  for  fruit  or  ornament  from  the  earliest  colonial 
times.  It  is  certain  that  wine  was  .made  from  this  species  by 
the  English  settlers  at  Jamestown.  Vines  of  it  are  now  to  be 


10 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


found  on  arbors,  in  gardens  or  half  wild  on  fences  in  nearly 
every  farm  in  the  South  Atlantic  states.  That  the  Rotundifolias 
have  not  been  more  generally  brought  under  cultivation  is  due 


FIG.  3.     A  shoot  of  Vitis  rotundifolia. 


to  the  bountifulness  of  the  wild  vines,  which  has  obviated  the 
necessity  of  domesticating  them.  The  fruit  of  its  varieties, 
to  a  palate  unaccustomed  to  them,  is  not  very  acceptable, 


THE   DOMESTICATION   OF    THE   GRAPE  11 

having  a  musky  flavor  and  odor  and  a  sweet,  juicy  pulp,  which  is 
lacking  in  sprightliness.  Many,  however,  acquire  a  taste  for 
these  grapes  and  find  them  pleasant  eating.  The  great  defect 
of  this  grape  is  that  the  berries  part  from  the  pedicels  as  they 
ripen  and  perfect  bunches  cannot  be  secured.  In  fact,  the 
crop  is  often  harvested  by  shaking  the  vines  so  that  the  berries 
drop  on  sheets  beneath.  Despite  these  defects,  a  score  or 
more  varieties  of  this  species  are  now  under  general  cultivation 
in  the  cotton-belt,  and  interest  in  their  domestication  is  now 
greater  than  in  any  other  species,  with  great  promise  for  the 
future. 

The  jEstioalia  or  summer-grapes. 

The  South  has  another  grape  of  remarkable  horticultural  pos- 
sibilities. This  is  Vitis  cestivalw  (Fig.  4),  the  summer-grape  or, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  Rotundifolias,  the  bunch-grape  of 
southern  forests.  There  are  now  a  score  or  more  well-known 
varieties  of  this  species,  the  best  known  being  Norton,  which 
probably  originated  with  Dr.  D.  N.  Norton,  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia, in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  berries 
of  the  true  ^Estivalis  grapes  are  too  small,  too  destitute  of  pulp 
and  too  tart  to  make  good  dessert  fruits,  but  from  them  are 
made  our  best  native  red  wines.  Domestication  of  this  species 
has  been  greatly  retarded  by  a  peculiarity  of  the  species  which 
hinders  its  propagation.  Grapes  are  best  propagated  from 
cuttings,  but  this  species  is  not  easily  reproduced  by  this  means 
and  the  difficulty  of  securing  good  young  vines  has  been  a 
serious  handicap  in  its  culture. 

There  are  two  subspecies  of  Vitis  cpstivalis  which  promise 
much  for  American  viticulture.  Vitis  cestivalis  Bourquiniana, 
known  only  under  cultivation  and  of  very  doubtful  botanical 
standing,  furnishes  American  viticulture  several  valuable 
varieties.  Chief  of  these  is  the  Delaware,  the  introduction 
of  which  sixty  years  ago  from  the  town  of  Delaware,  Ohio, 


12 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 


raised  the  standard  in  quality  of  New  World  grapes  to  that  of 
Old  World.  No  European  grape  has  a  richer  or  more  delicate 
flavor,  or  a  more  pleasing  aroma,  than  Delaware.  While  a 
northern  grape,  it  can  be  grown  in  the  South,  and  thrives  under 


FIG.  4.     A  shoot  of  Vitis  cestivalis. 

so  many  different  climatic  and  soil  conditions  and  under  all  is 
so  fruitful,  that,  next  to  the  Concord,  it  is  the  most  popular 
American  grape  for  garden  and  vineyard.  Without  question, 
however,  Delaware  contains  a  trace  of  European  blood. 

Another  offshoot  of   this   subspecies   is  Herbemont,  which, 
in  the  South,  holds  the  same  rank  that  Concord  holds  in  the 


THE   DOMESTICATION   OF    THE   GRAPE  13 

North.  The  variety  is  grown  only  south  of  the  Ohio,  and  in 
this  great  region  it  is  esteemed  by  all  for  a  dessert  grape  and 
for  its  light  red  wine.  It  is  one  of  the  few  American  varieties 
which  finds  favor  in  France,  being  cultivated  in  southwest 
France  as  a  wine-grape.  Its  history  goes  back  to  a  colony  of 
French  Huguenots  in  Georgia  before  the  Revolutionary  War. 
Very  similar  to  Herbemont  is  Lenoir,  also  with  a  history  trac- 
ing back  to  the  French  in  the  Carolinas  or  Georgia  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  other  subspecies  of  Vitis  cestivalis  is  Vitis  cestivalis 
Lincecumii,  the  post-oak  grape  of  Texas  and  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Recently  this  wild  grape  has 
been  brought  under  domestication,  and  from  it  has  been  bred 
a  number  of  most  promising  varieties  for  hot  and  dry  regions. 

The  Vulpina  or  river-bank  grapes. 

The  North,  too,  has  a  wine-grape  from  which  wines  nearly 
equaling  those  of  the  southern  ^Estivalis  are  made.  This  is 
Vitis  vulpina  (V.  riparia),  the  river-bank  grape,  a  shoot  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  the  most  widely  distributed 
of  any  of  the  native  species.  It  grows  as  far  north  as 
Quebec,  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Fully  a  century  ago,  a 
wine-grape  of  this  species  was  cultivated  under  the  name 
Worthington,  but  the  attention  of  vineyardists  was  not  turned 
to  the  Vulpinas  until  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
when  the  qualities  of  Its  vines  attracted  the  attention  of  French 
viticulturists.  Phylloxera  had  been  introduced  from  America 
into  France  and  threatened  the  existence  of  French  vineyards. 
After  trying  all  possible  remedies  for  the  scourge,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  insect  could  be  overcome  by  grafting  Euro- 
pean grapes  on  American  vines  resistant  to  phylloxera.  A  trial 
of  the  promising  species  of  New  World  grapes  showed  that 
vines  of  this  species  were  best  suited  for  the  reconstruction  of 


14 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 


French  vineyards,  the  vines  being  not  only  resistant  to  the 
phylloxera  but  also  vigorous  and  hardy.  At  present,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  vines  of  Europe,  California  and  other  grape- 
growing  regions  are  grafted  on  the  roots  of  this  or  of  other 


FIG.  5.     A  shoot  of  Vitis  xulpina. 


THE   DOMESTICATION   OF    THE   GRAPE  15 

American  species,  and  the  viticulture  of  the  world  is  thus  largely 
dependent  on  these  grapes. 

The  French  found  that  a  number  of  the  Vulpina  (Riparia) 
grapes  introciuced  for  their  roots  were  valuable  as  direct  pro- 
ducers for  wines.  The  fruits  of  this  species  are  too  small  and 
too  sour  for  dessert,  but  they  are  free  from  the  disagreeable 
tastes  and  aromas  of  some  of  our  native  grapes  and,  therefore, 
make  very  good  wines.  The  best  known  of  the  varieties  of 
this  species  is  the  Clinton,  which  is  generally  thought  to  have 
originated  in  the  yard  of  Dr.  Noyes,  of  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton,  New  York,  about  1820.  It  is,  however,  probably  the 
Worthington,  of  which  the  origin  is  unknown,  renamed.  There 
are  possibly  a  hundred  or  more  grapes  now  under  cultivation 
wholly  or  in  part  from  Vulpina,  most  of  them  hybrids  with 
the  American  Labrusca  and  the  European  Vinifera,  with  both 
of  which  it  hybridizes  freely. 

Domesticated  species  of  minor  importance. 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  seen  that  four  species 
of  grapes  constitute  the  foundation  of  American  viticulture. 
Nine  other  species  furnish  pure-bred  varieties  and  many  hybrids 
with  the  four  chief  species  or  among  themselves.  These  are 
V.  rupestrisj  V.  Longii,  V.  Champinii,  V.  Munsoniana,  V. 
cordifolia,  V.  candicans,  V.  bicolor,  V.  monticola  and  V.  Ber- 
landieri.  Several  of  these  nine  species  are  of  value  in  the  vine- 
yard or  for  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  other  grapes.  The 
domestication  of  all  of  these  is  just  begun,  and  each  year  sees 
them  more  and  more  in  use  in  the  vineyards  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  II 
GRAPE  REGIONS  AND   THEIR  DETERMINANTS 

HAPPILY,  the  grape  in  its  great  diversity  of  forms  accommo- 
dates itself  to  many  conditions,  so  that  some  variety  of  the  sev- 
eral cultivated  species  will  produce  fruit  for  home  use,  if  not  as  a 
market  commodity,  in  every  part  of  America  adapted  to  gen- 
eral agriculture.  But  commercial  grape-growing  on  this  con- 
tinent is  confined  to  a  few  regions,  in  each  of  which  it  is  profit- 
able only  in  ideal  situations.  In  fact,  few  other  agricultural 
industries  are  more  definitely  determined  by  environment  than 
the  grape-industry.  Where  are  the  grape  regions  of  America  ? 
What  determines  the  suitability  of  a  region  for  grape-growing  ? 
Answers  to  these  questions  furnish  clews  to  the  culture  of  this 
fruit  and  help  in  estimating  the  potentialities  of  a  new  region  or 
of  a  location  for  grape-growing. 

THE  GRAPE  REGIONS  OF  AMERICA 

There  are  four  chief  grape-growing  regions  in  North  America, 
with  possibly  twice  as  many  more  subsidiary  ones.  These 
several  regions,  each  of  which  has  its  distinct  varieties  and  to 
less  extent  distinct  species,  and  in  each  of  which  grapes  are 
grown  for  somewhat  widely  different  purposes,  give  a  great 
variety  of  industrial  conditions  to  the  grape-growing  of  the 
continent.  Nevertheless,  the  regions  have  much  in  common 
in  their  environment.  It  is  from  their  differences  and  simi- 
larities that  most  can  be  learned  in  the  brief  discussions  of 
the  regions  that  follow. 

16 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS        17 

The  Pacific  slope. 

The  Pacific  slope  takes  precedence  among  the  grape  regions 
of  the  continent,  exceeding  all  others  combined  in  the  produc- 
tion of  grapes  and  grape  products.  California  is  the  viticul- 
tural  center  of  this  great  region,  grapes  being  grown  within  her 
bounds  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Shasta  on  the  north  to  Mexico 
on  the  south  and  from  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras  on  the  east 
to  the  forest  that  borders  the  coast  on  the  west.  So  outlined, 
California  might  appear  to  be  one  vast  vineyard,  but  it  is  only 
in  favored  valleys,  plains  and  low  hills  in  the  territory  bounded 
that  the  vine  is  sufficiently  well  suited  to  be  productive.  Out- 
liers of  this  main  region  of  the  Pacific  slope  run  north  into 
Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho  and  even  into  British  Columbia, 
forced  more  and  more  eastward  the  farther  north  to  escape 
humidity  from  the  ocean  which  northward  passes  farther  and 
farther  inland.  Other  outliers  of  the  main  region  are  found 
eastward  in  Nevada,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  even  Utah  and 
Colorado,  though  for  the  most  part  in  these  states  grape-grow- 
ing is  still  insignificant.  Plate  I.  shows  typical  vineyards  in 
California. 

The  grapes  grown  on  the  Pacific  slope  are  almost  exclusively 
Vinifera  varieties,  though  a  few  American  grapes  are  planted 
in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  This  is  not  because  American 
varieties  cannot  be  grown,  although  they  succeed  rather  less 
well  here  than  on  the  eastern  seaboard,  but  because  the  Vini''- 
eras  are  liked  better,  and  climate  and  soil  seem  exactly  to  suit 
them.  Viticulture  on  the  Pacific  slope  is  divided  into  three 
interdependent  industries  which  are  alrnost  never  quite  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  —  the  wine  industry,  raisin  industry  and 
table-grape  industry.  Each  of  these  industries  depends  on 
grapes  more  or  less  specially  adapted  to  the  product,  the  special 
characteristics  being  secured  chiefly  through  somewhat  distinct 
types  of  grapes  but  depending  partly  on  soil  and  climatic  con- 


18  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ditions.  The  manufacture  of  unfermented  grape-juice  is  not 
yet  a  success  in  this  region  for  the  reasons  that  Vinifera  grapes 
do  not  make  a  good  unfermented  juice,  and  American  grapes 
are  not  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  to  warrant  the  establish- 
ment of  grape-juice  plants. 

Bioletti  gives  the  extent  of  the  grape-growing  industry  in 
California  as  follows  : l 

"The  vineyards  of  California  covered  in  1912  about  385,000 
acres.  Of  this  total,  about  180,000  acres  were  producing  wine- 
grapes.  Roughly,  50  per  cent  of  the  wine  was  produced  in  the 
great  interior  valleys,  including  most  of  .the  sweet  wines ;  35 
per  cent  was  produced  by  the  valleys  and  hillsides  of  the  Coast 
ranges,  including  most  of  the  dry  wines;  the  remaining  15  per 
cent  was  produced  in  Southern  California  and  included  both 
sweet  and  dry. 

"The  raisin-grape  vineyards  covered  about  130,000  acres, 
of  which  about  90  per  cent  were  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
7  per  cent  in  the  Sacramento,  and  3  per  cent  in  Southern 
California. 

"The  shipping-grape  vineyards  are  reckoned  at  75,000  acres, 
distributed  about  as  follows :  50  per  cent  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  40  per  cent  in  San  Joaquin,  6  per  cent  in  Southern 
California,  and  4  per  cent  in  the  Coast  ranges." 

The  Chautauqua  grape-belt. 

The  Chautauqua  grape-belt,  lying  along  the  northeastern 
shore  of  Lake  Erie  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  is 
the  second  most  important  grape  region  in  America.  The 
"belt"  is  a  narrow  strip  of  lowland  averaging  about  three  miles 
in  width,  lying  between  Lake  Erie  and  a  high  escarpment  which 
bounds  the  belt  on  the  south  throughout  its  entire  length  of 
a  hundred  or  more  miles.  Here  climate  and  soil  seem  to  be 

1  Bioletti,  Frederic  T.  Report  of  International  Congress  of  Viti- 
culture, 88.  1915. 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS        19 

exceptionally  favorable  for  grape-growing.  Climate  is  the 
chief  determinant  of  the  boundaries  of  this  belt,  since  there 
are  several  types  of  soil  upon  which  grapes  do  equally  well  in 
the  region,  and  when  the  climate  changes  at  the  two  extremities 
of  the  belt  where  the  escarpment  becomes  low,  or  when  the 
distance  between  the  lake  and  the  escarpment  is  great,  grape- 
growing  ceases  to  be  profitable. 

The  growers  of  this  region  are  organized  into  selling  associa- 
tions so  that  estimates  of  acreage  and  yields  are  obtainable. 
At  present  writing,  1918,  there  are  in  this  belt  in  New  York 
about  35,000  acres  of  grapes ;  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  about 
15,000  acres,  much  the  greater  part  of  which  is  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  average  yield  of  grapes  to  the  acre  for  the  region  is  about 
two  tons.  The  average  total  production  for  the  past  five  years 
has  been  about  100,000  tons,  of  which  65,000  tons  are  shipped 
as  table-grapes,  and  35,000  tons  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
wine  and  grape-juice.  Among  varieties,  Concord  reigns  su- 
preme in  the  Chautauqua  belt.  The  writer,  in  1906,  made  a 
canvass  of  the  region,  vineyard  by  vineyard,  and  found  that 
90  per  cent  of  the  acreage  of  the  belt  was  set  to  Concord,  3  per 
cent  to  Niagara,  2  per  cent  to  Worden  and  the  remaining  5 
per  cent  to  a  dozen  or  more  varieties  of  which  Moore  Early  and 
Delaware  led. 

The  manufacture  of  grape- juice  on  a  commercial  scale  began 
in  the  Chautauqua  belt  and  most  of  this  product  is  still  pro- 
duced in  the  region.  Here,  only  Concord  grapes  of  the  best 
quality  are  used  for  grape-juice.  The  growth  of  this  industry 
is  most  significant  for  the  future  of  grape-growing  in  the  region. 
Twenty  years  ago  grape-juice  was  a  negligible  factor  in  the 
grape  industry  of  this  region;  at  present,  the  annual  output 
is  in  the  neighborhood  of  4,000,000  gallons.  Grape-juice- 
makers  now  determine  the  price  of  grapes  for  the  region,  and 
while  the  quantity  used  is  less  than  that  for  table-grapes,  the 
time  is  not  distant  when  it  will  be  greater. 


20          MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

The  Niagara  region. 

Fifty  miles  due  north  of  the  Chautauqua  belt,  across  the  end 
of  Lake  Erie  and  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Niagara,  is  a  smaller 
belt  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  so  similar  in  soil, 
climate  and  topography  that  in  these  respects  the  two  regions 
might  be  considered  as  identical.  This  is  the  Niagara  region, 
Canada's  chief  grape-producing  area.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Lake  Ontario ;  on  the  south,  at  a  distance  of  one  to 
three  miles  by  the  high  Niagara  escarpment;  to  the  east  it 
crosses  the  Niagara  River  into  New  York;  and  in  the  west 
tapers  to  a  point  at  Hamilton  on  the  westward  extremity  of 
Lake  Ontario.  Here,  again,  is  the  influence  of  climate  dis- 
tinctly manifested.  As  this  belt  passes  into  New  York,  it  widens 
and  the  influence  of  Lake  Ontario  is  less  and  less  felt  to  the 
eastward,  and  in  consequence  grape-growing  becomes  less  and 
less  profitable. 

There  were,  according  to  the  Ontario  Bureau  of  Industries, 
in  1914,  about  10,850  acres  of  grapes  in  the  Niagara  region  in 
Canada,  and  possibly  4,000  acres  more  near  the  Niagara  River 
and  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  in  New  York.  The 
Niagara  grape  originated  on  the  American  side  of  the  Niagara 
region  and  is  here  planted  more  extensively  than  elsewhere. 
Grape-growing  in  this  region  is  similar  in  all  respects  to  that  of 
the  Chautauqua  belt,  the  same  varieties  and  nearly  identical 
methods  of  pruning,  cultivation,  spraying  and  harvesting  being 
employed.  The  crop  is  chiefly  used  as  table-grapes  but  the 
grape-juice  industry  is  growing. 

The  Central  Lakes  region  of  New  York. 

In  the  central  part  of  western  New  York  are  several  remark- 
able bodies  of  water  known  as  the  Central  Lakes.  Three  of 
these  are  large  and  deep  enough  to  give  ideal  climatic  condi- 
tions for  grapes,  and  about  these  lakes  are  grouped  several  im- 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS       21 

\ 

portant  areas  of  vineyards,  making  this  the  third  most  im- 
portant grape  region  in  America.  The  region  assumes  further 
importance  because  most  of  the  champagne  made  in  America 
is  produced  here,  and  it  is  the  chief  center  of  still  wines  in  east- 
ern America  as  well.  It  is  further  distinguished  by  its  dis- 
tinctive types  of  grapes,  Catawba  and  Delaware  taking  the 
place  of  Concord  and  Niagara,  the  sorts  that  usually  pre- 
dominate in  eastern  grape  regions. 

The  main  body  of  this  region  lies  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
high  lands  surrounding  Keuka  Lake.  On  the  shores  of  this 
lake  there  are,  approximately,  15,000  acres  of  grapes.  Ad- 
jacent to  this  main  body  are  several  smaller  bodies  about  the 
neighboring  lakes.  Thus,  at  the  head  of  Canandaigua  Lake 
and  on  its  shores  are  about  2500  acres;  near  Seneca  and  be- 
tween Seneca  and  Cayuga  Lakes  there  are  probably  1500  acres 
more.  In  a  few  specially  favored  places  on  other  of  these  Cen- 
tral Lakes,  there  are  possibly  1000  acres,  making  all  told  for 
this  region,  about  20,000  acres.  Again  it  is  climate  that  sets 
the  seal  of  approval  on  the  region  for  viticulture.  In  addition 
to  the  benefits  of  deep  bodies  of  water,  high  and  sloping 
lands  cause  the  frosts  to  cease  early  in  the  spring  and  hold 
them  in  abeyance  in  the  autumn,  giving  an  exceptionally  long 
season. 

Champagne-making  began  here  about  1860 ;  at  present  there 
are  a  score  or  more  manufacturers  of  champagne,  wine  and 
brandy,  the  output  being  annually  about  3,000,000  gallons  of 
wine  and  2,000,000  bottles  of  champagne.  Recently  the 
manufacture  of  grape- juice  has  begun  and  the  industry  is  now 
flourishing. 

Minor  grape  regions. 

Viticulture  is  commercially  important  in  several  other  regions 
than  those  outlined.  Thus,  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  River, 
grapes  have  been  grown  commercially  for  nearly  a  hundred 


22  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

years,  the  industry  reaching  its  height  between  1880  and  1890, 
when  there  were  13,000  acres  under  cultivation.  For  some 
years,  however,  grape-growing  along  the  Hudson  has  been  on 
the  decline.  Another  region  in  which  viticulture  reaches  con- 
siderable magnitude  is  in  several  islands  in  Lake  Erie  near 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  the  product  going  largely  for  the  manufacture 
of  wine.  At  one  time  grapes  were  grown  commercially  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio  River  about  Cincinnati  and  westward  into 
Indiana.  The  industry  here,  however,  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Another  region  in  which  grape-growing  was  once  of  prime 
importance  but  now  lags  has  its  center  at  Hermann,  Missouri. 
The  newest  grape-producing  area  worthy  of  note  is  in  south- 
western Michigan  about  the  towns  of  Lawton  and  Paw  Paw. 
A  small  but  very  prosperous  grape-growing  region  has  its 
center  at  Egg  Harbor,  New  Jersey.  Ives  is  the  mainstay 
among  varieties  in  this  region.  In  the  southern  states, 
Muscadine  grapes  are  grown  in  a  small  way  in  every  part 
of  the  cotton-belt  and  varieties  of  other  native  species  are 
to  be  found  in  home  vineyards  in  the  upland  regions,  but 
nowhere  in  the  South  can  it  be  said  that  grape-growing  is 
a  commercial  industry. 

THE  DETERMINANTS  OF  GRAPE  REGIONS 

Climate,  soil,  site,  the  surface  features  of  the  land,  insects, 
fungi  and  commercial  geography  are  the  chief  factors  that  de- 
termine regions  for  money-making  in  grape-growing.  This 
has  been  made  plain  in  the  foregbing  discussion  of  grape  regions, 
but  the  several  factors  must  be  taken  up  in  greater  detail.  To 
bound  the  regions  is  of  less  importance  than  to  understand  why 
they  exist  —  less  needful  to  remember,  more  needful  to  under- 
stand. From  what  has  been  said,  the  reader  has  no  doubt  al- 
ready concluded  that  successful  grape-growing  is  in  largest 
measure  due  to  kindliness  in  climate. 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR    DETERMINANTS        23 

Climate 

Under  the  assumption,  then,  that  climate,  of  all  factors,  is 
chief  in  playing  providence  to  the  grape,  let  us  examine  some- 
what critically  the  relations  of  climate  to  grape-growing. 
When  analyzed,  the  essentials  of  climate,  as  it  governs  grape- 
growing,  are  found  to  be  six :  first,  length  of  season ;  second, 
seasonal  sum  of  heat ;  third,  amount  of  humidity  in  summer 
weather;  fourth,  dates  of  spring  and  autumn  frosts;  fifth, 
winter  temperature ;  sixth,  air  currents. 

Length  of  season. 

To  reach  true  perfection,  each  grape  variety  has  a  length  of 
season  of  its  own.  With  each,  if  it  is  grown  in  too  low  a  lati- 
tude, the  vine  is  uninterrupted  in  growth;  its  leaves  tend  to 
become  evergreen;  and  not  infrequently  it  produces  at  the 
same  time  blossoms,  green  fruits  and  ripe  fruits.  This  is,  of 
course,  the  extreme  to  which  grapes  pass  in  the  far  South. 
Again,  many  northern  varieties  fail  where  southern  grapes 
succeed  because  the  fruits  pass  too  rapidly  from  maturity  to 
decay.  On  the  other  hand,  very  often  southern  grapes  are 
hardy  in  vine  in  the  North,  but  the  season  is  not  sufficiently 
long  for  the  fruit  to  mature  and  to  acquire  sufficient  sugar  to 
give  them  good  keeping  quality,  properly  to  pass  through 
vinous  fermentation,  or  even  to  make  a  good  unf ermented 
grape-juice.  In  the  uneven  topography  of  this  continent,  it  is 
not  possible  to  state  the  range  in  latitude  in  which  grapes  can 
be  cultivated  to  advantage,  for  latitude  is  often  set  aside  by 
altitude.  Thus,  isothermal  lines,  or  lines  of  equal  temperature, 
are  much  curved  in  America  and  do  not  at  all  coincide  with  the 
parallels  of  latitude. 

Other  factors,  of  course,  than  length  of  season  enter  into  the 
ripening  of  grapes.  The  daily  range  in  temperature,  not  al- 
ways dependent  on  latitude,  affects  ripening.  Cool  nights  may 


24          MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

offset  warm  days  and  delay  ripening.  Certainly  rains,  fogs 
and  humid  air  delay  maturity.  The  bottom  heat  of  loose, 
warm,  dry  gravelly  or  stony  soils  hastens  maturity.  Sunshine 
secured  by  a  sunny  aspect  or  shelter  hastens  maturity. 

The  seasonal  sum  of  heat. 

Successful  cultivation  of  the  grape  depends  on  a  sufficient 
amount  of  heat  during  the  summer  season.  The  theory  is 
that  buds  of  the  grape  commence  to  start  when  the  mean  daily 
temperature  reaches  a  certain  height,  and  that  the  sum  of  the 
mean  daily  temperature  must  reach  a  certain  amount  before 
grapes  ripen.  Manifestly,  this  sum  must  vary  much  with  dif- 
ferent varieties,  low  for  the  earliest  sorts,  high  for  the  latest. 
There  have  been  many  observations  as  to  the  temperatures 
at  which  buds  of  the  grape  start  growth,  so  that  it  is  now 
known  that  the  temperature  varies  in  accordance  with  lo- 
cality and  degree  of  maturity.  Roughly  speaking,  grape 
buds  start  at  temperatures  from  50°  to  60°  F.  The  seasonal 
sum  of  heat  for  ripening  is  probably  1600  to  2400  units.  A 
variety  ought  not  to  be  planted,  therefore,  in  a  region  in 
which  the  average  seasonal  sum  of  heat  is  not  sufficiently 
high.  The  seasonal  sum  of  heat  can  be  determined  for  a 
locality  from  data  published  by  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau;  and  by  comparing  with  the  sum  of  heat  units  in 
localities  where  a  variety  is  known  to  thrive,  the  grape- 
grower  can  determine  whether  there  is  sufficient  heat  for 
any  particular  variety. 

The  grape  seldom  suffers  from  hot  weather  in  a  grape  region. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  scalded  in  the  full  blaze  of  a  hot  sun, 
but  the  ample  foliage  of  the  vine  usually  furnishes  protection 
against  a  burning  sun.  At  maturing  time,  the  heat  of  an  un- 
clouded sun,  if  the  air  circulates  freely,  insures  a  finely  finished 
product.  Deep  planting  helps  to  offset  the  harmful  influences 
of  warm  climates. 


\ 

GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS       25 

Humidity  of  summer  weather. 

The  grape  is  very  sensitive  to  moisture  conditions,  and 
grows  best  in  regions  where  the  summer  rainfall  is  compara- 
tively light.  A  damp  and  cloudy  summer  brings  disaster 
to  the  vineyard  in  several  ways;  as  small  growth  of  vine, 
small  set  of  fruit,  a  crop  of  poor  quality,  and  the  development 
of  the  several  fungous  diseases.  Although  the  grape  stands 
drought,  a  superfluity  of  moisture  in  the  soil  may  do  little 
harm,  as  is  shown  in  irrigated  vineyards,  but  a  humid  air 
is  fatal  to  success  especially  if  the  air  is  both  warm  and  wet. 
Moist  weather  during  the  time  of  maturity  is  particularly 
disastrous  to  the  grape,  as  are  frequent  fogs.  Cold  wet 
weather  in  blooming  time  is  the  grape-grower's  vernal  bane, 
since  it  most  effectually  prevents  the  setting  of  fruit.  It 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  the  grape  lives  by  sunlight, 
warmth  and  air  —  it  often  thrives  on  the  desert's  edge.  These 
considerations  make  it  manifest  that  the  monthly  and  sea- 
sonal means  of  precipitation  must  be  considered  in  selecting 
a  locality  to  grow  grapes. 

Spring  and  autumn  frosts. 

The  average  date  at  which  the  last  killing  frost  occurs  in  the 
spring  often  determines  the  limit  in  latitude  at  which  the  grape 
can  be  grown.  Even  in  the  most  favored  grape  region  of  the 
continent,  killing  frosts  occasionally  destroy  the  grape  crop,  and 
there  are  few  seasons  in  which  frost  does  not  take  some  toll. 
Thus  on  May  7,  1916,  frost  all  but  ruined  the  crop  of  wine-  and 
table-grapes  in  the  great  grape  region  ol  northern  California 
where  frosts  are  seldom  expected  in  May.  Little  or  nothing 
can  be  done  to  protect  grapes  from  frost.  Windbreaks  as 
often  favor  the  frost  as  the  vine,  and  smudging  or  heating 
the  vineyards  is  too  expensive  to  be  practical.  In  growing 
grapes,  therefore,  the  commonly  recognized  precaution  of 


26  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

selecting  a  site  near  water,  on  slopes  or  in  a  warm  thermal  belt 
must  be  exercised. 

The  limits  of  grape  culture  are  also  determined  by  early 
autumn  frosts.  The  grape  stands  two  or  three  degrees  of 
frost,  but  anything  lower  usually  destroys  the  crop.  Here, 
again,  the  only  precaution  is  to  take  pains  in  selecting  the  site. 

The  use  of  weather  data  and  dates  of  life  events  of  the  grape. 

These  considerations  of  length  of  season,  humidity  and 
spring  and  fall  frosts  make  it  plain  that  the  grape-grower  must 
synchronize  these  phases  of  climate  with  the  life  events  of  the 
grape.  In  particular,  he  must  study  weather  data  in  relation 
to  the  blooming  and  ripening  of  grapes.  Usually,  the  neces- 
sary weather  data  may  be  secured  from  the  nearest  local  weather 
bureau,  while  the  date  of  blooming  and  ripening  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  state  experiment  stations  in  the  states  where 
the  grape  is  an  important  crop. 

Winter  temperature. 

Varieties  of  native  grapes  are  seldom  injured  in  America  by 
winter-killing,  since  they  are  usually  planted  in  climates  in 
which  wild  grapes  withstand  winter  conditions.  Native  vari- 
eties follow  the  rule  that  plant  and  climate  are  truly  congenial 
in  regions  in  which  the  plant  thrives  without  the  aid  of  man. 
A  few  varieties  of  native  grapes  fare  badly  in  the  winter's  cold 
of  northern  grape  regions,  and  the  tender  Vinifera  vine  is  at 
the  mercy  of  the  winter  wherever  the  mercury  goes  below  zero. 
In  cold  climates,  therefore,  care  must  be  exercised  in  selecting 
hardy  varieties  and  in  following  careful  cultural  methods  with 
the  tender  sorts.  If  other  climatic  conditions  are  favorable, 
however,  winter-killing  is  not  an  unsurmountable  difficulty, 
since  the  grape  is  easily  protected  from  cold,  so  easily  that  the 
tender  Viniferas  may  be  grown  in  the  cold  North  with  winter 
protection. 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS       27 

Air  currents. 

\ 

Currents  of  air  are  of  but  local  importance  in  growing  tree- 
fruits,  but  are  of  general  and  vital  importance  in  growing  the 
grape.  The  direction,  force  and  frequency  of  prevailing  winds 
are  often  controlling  factors  in  the  suppression  of  fungous  dis- 
eases of  the  grape,  and  the  presence  of  fungi  often  means  suc- 
cess or  failure  in  regions  in  which  the  grape  is  planted. 
Winds  are  beneficial,  too,  when  they  bring  warm  air  or  dry 
air,  and  when  they  keep  frosty  air  in  motion.  The  air  must 
move  in  all  grape  regions,  whether  from  canon,  mountain, 
lake  or  sea.  Sunlight,  warmth,  and  air  in  motion  are  life  to 
the  grape.  Sometimes  winds  may  be  detrimental ;  as  when 
too  cold,  too  blustering,  or  when  they  bring  hail,  the  latter 
being  about  the  most  disastrous  of  all  natural  calamities. 
Windbreaks  are  of  small  value  and  are  often  worse  than  use- 
less. Having  planted  his  vineyard,  the  grape-grower  must 
take  the  winds  as  they  blow. 

Soils  for  grapes 

A  prime  requisite  for  a  vineyard  being  earth  in  which  vines 
will  grow,  successful  grape-growing  is  eminently  dependent  on 
the  selection  of  soil.  Many  mistakes  are  made  in  the  great 
grape  regions  in  planting  on  unsuitable  soils,  the  planter  going 
on  the  assumption  that  any  soil  in  a  grape  region  should  be  good 
enough  for  the  grape.  But  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  grape 
regions  is  not  all  grape  soil.  In  New  York,  for  example,  much 
of  the  land  in  the  three  grape  regions  is  better  fitted  for  pro- 
ducing crops  for  the  mason  or  road-mender  than  for  the  grape- 
grower.  Other  soils  in  these  regions  are  fit  for  vineyards  only 
when  tiled,  and  tiling  does  not  make  all  wet  land  fit  for  tilling. 
Heavy,  clammy  clays,  light  sands,  soils  parched  with  thirst,  thin 
or  hungry  soils  —  on  all  of  these  the  grower  may  plant  but 
will  seldom  harvest. 


28  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

The  ideal  soil. 

Grapes  may  be  well  grown  in  a  wide  range  of  soils  if  the  land 
is  well  drained,  open  to  air  and  if  it  holds  heat.  But  without 
these  essentials,  whatever  the  soil,  .all  subsequent  treatment 
fails  to  produce  a  good  vineyard.  Generally  speaking,  the 
grape  grows  best  in  a  light,  free-working,  gravelly  loam,  but 
there  are  many  good  vineyards  in  gravelly  or  stony  clays, 
gravel  or  stone  to  furnish  drainage,  let  in  the  air  and  to  hold 
heat.  Contrary  to  general  belief,  the  grape  seldom  thrives  in 
very  sandy  soils  unless  there  is  a  fair  admixture  of  clay,  con- 
siderable decomposing  vegetable  matter  and  a  clay  subsoil. 
The  latter,  however,  must  not  come  too  close  to  the  surface. 
Some  of  the  best  vineyard  lands  in  the  country  are  very  stony, 
the  stones  hindering  only  in  making  the  land  difficult  to  till. 
Nearly  all  grapes  require  a  friable  soil,  compactness  being  a 
serious  defect.  Virgil,  writing  in  Christ's  time,  gave  good  ad- 
vice as  to  soil  for  the  vine : 

"A  free  loose  earth  is  what  the  vines  demand, 
Where  wind  and  frost  have  help'd  the  lab'rer's  hand, 
And  sturdy  peasants  deep  have  stirr'd  the  land." 

Cold,  churlish,  sticky  or  clammy  clays  are  never  to  the  liking 
of  the  grape. 

Great  fertility  is  not  necessary  in  grape  lands.  Indeed,  the 
grape  is  conspicuous  among  cultivated  plants  for  ability  to 
nourish  itself  where  the  food  supply  is  scant.  Soils  naturally 
too  rich  produce  an  overgrowth  of  vine,  the  season's  wood  does 
not  mature,  the  crop  does  not  set,  and  the  grapes  lack  sugar, 
size,  color  and  flavor.  Good  physical  condition  and  warmth 
in  a  well-watered,  well-aired  soil  enable  the  grape  to  search 
far  and  wide  for  its  food. 

Drainage. 

Xo  cultivated  grape  endures  a  wet  soil ;  all  demand  drainage. 
A  few  sorts  may  thrive  for  a  time  in  moist,  heavy  land,  but  more 


GRAPE  REGIONS  AND   THEIR   DETERMINANTS       29 

often  they  do  not  live  though  they  may  linger.  The  water- 
table  should  be  at  least  two  feet  from  the  surface.  If  by  chance 
this  comes  naturally,  so  much  the  better,  but  otherwise  the 
land  must  be  tile-drained.  Sloping  land  is  by  no  means  always 
well  drained,  many  hillsides  having  a  subsoil  so  impervious  or 
so  retentive  of  moisture  that  under-drainage  is  a  necessity. 
The  texture  of  the  land  is  usually  improved  so  greatly  by  good 
drainage  that  the  grower  has  little  need  to  rely  on  the  clemency 
of  the  season  in  carrying  on  vineyard  cultivation  in  well-drained 
land. 

Soil  adaptations. 

In  the  refinement  of  viticulture,  grape-growers  find  that 
particular  varieties  grow  best  in  a  particular  soil,  the  likes  and 
dislikes  being  determined  only  by  trial,  for  the  peculiarities 
which  adapt  a  soil  to  a  variety  are  not  analyzable.  Some 
varieties,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Concord  being  a  good  example, 
grow  fruitfully  in  a  great  variety  of  soils.  Each  of  the  several 
species  with  their  varieties  has  quite  distinct  adaptations  to 
soils.  This  is  taken  advantage  of  in  planting  varieties  on  un- 
congenial soils  after  they  have  been  grafted  on  a  vine  which 
finds  itself  at  home  in  the  particular  soil.  Much  has  been  ac- 
complished in  growing  varieties  on  uncongenial  soils  by  con- 
sorting them  with  other  stocks,  an  operation  which  has  brought 
forth  volumes  of  discussion  as  to  the  adaptabilities  of  cions  to 
stocks  and  stocks  to  soils,  subjects  to  receive  attention  on  a 
later  page. 

Insects  and  fungi 

• 

The  profitable  grape  regions  of  the  country  have  all  been  es- 
tablished in  regions  comparatively  free  from  grape  insects  and 
fungi.  If  pests  came  later  in  considerable  numbers,  the  indus- 
try, in  the  old  days,  perished.  Here  and  there  in  the  agricul- 
tural regions  of  the  country  may  be  found  a  sorry  company  of 


30          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

halt  and  maimed  vines,  remnants  of  once  flourishing  vineyards, 
brought  to  their  miserable  condition  by  some  scourge  of  insects 
or  fungi.  The  advent  of  spraying  and  of  better  knowledge  of 
the  habits  of  the  pests  has  greatly  lessened  the  importance  of 
parasites  as  a  factor  in  determining  the  value  of  a  region  for 
grape-growing ;  but  even  in  the  light  of  the  new  knowledge,  it 
is  not  wise  to  go  against  Nature  in  regions  where  pests  are 
strongly  intrenched. 

Commercial  factors 

The  dominant  factors  that  lead  to  the  planting  of  large  areas 
to  any  one  fruit  are  often  economic  ones ;  as  transportation, 
markets,  labor,  facilities  for  making  by-products,  and  oppor- 
tunity to  join  in  buying  and  selling  organizations.  All  of 
these  factors  play  an  important  part  in  determining  the  bounds 
of  grape  regions,  but  a  lesser  part  than  in  the  establishment 
of  large  areas  of  other  fruits,  for  the  reason  that  the  grape  is 
so  largely  grown  for  raisins,  wine,  champagne  and  grape-juice, 
products  condensed  in  form,  made  with  little  labor,  easily  trans- 
ported, which  keep  long  and  find  ready  market  at  any  time. 
Again,  where  natural  conditions  are  favorable  for  grape-growing, 
the  crop  comes  almost  as  a  gift  from  Nature ;  whereas,  if  the 
grower  must  breast  the  blows  of  unfavorable  natural  circum- 
stances, no  matter  how  favorable  the  economic  factors  may  be, 
the  vineyard  is  seldom  profitable.  Natural  factors,  therefore, 
outweigh  economic  ones  in  grape-growing,  but  the  latter  must 
be  considered  in  seeking  a  site  for  a  vineyard,  a  task  discussed 
under  several  heads  to  follow. 

Accessibility  to  markets. 

Markets  ought  to  be  accessible  in  commercial  grape-growing. 
A  location  in  which  there  is  a  good  local  market,  and  at  the 
same  time  ample  facilities  for  shipping  to  distant  markets,  is 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS        31 

desirable.  If  there  are  also  opportunities  to  dispose  of  any 
surplus  to  makers  of  raisins,  wine  or  grape-juice,  the  grower 
has  well-nigh  attained  the  ideal.  Further  to  be  desired  are 
good  roads,  short  hauls,  quick  transportation,  reasonable  freight 
rates,  refrigerator  service  and  cooperative  agencies.  The  more 
of  these  advantages  a  grower  has  at  his  disposal,  the  less  likely 
he  is  to  fail  in  commercial  competition. 

General  versus  local  markets. 

The  grower  must  be  reminded  rather  than  informed  that  he 
must  decide  in  locating  his  vineyard  whether  he  will  grow  for 
distant  markets,  for  manufacturing  into  grape  products,  or  for 
local  markets.  Determination  to  grow  grapes  once  made, 
subsequent  procedure  at  every  step  depends  on  the  disposition 
to  be  made  of  the  product.  Summarized,  the  differences  in 
growing  grapes  for  the  two  markets  are  :  For  the  general  mar- 
ket :  the  acreage  should  be  large ;  the  market  may  be  distant ; 
the  varieties  few ;  the  cost  of  production  low ;  sales  large  and 
prices  low ;  the  dealings  are  with  middlemen ;  and  extensive 
culture  is  practiced.  For  the  local  market :  the  acreage  may  be 
small ;  the  market  must  be  near  and  prices  must  be  high ;  the 
sales  are  direct  to  the  consumer ;  there  must  be  succession  in 
ripening ;  and  intensive  culture  is  practiced.  For  the  general 
market,  the  vineyard  is  the  unit;  for  the  local  market,  the 
variety  should  be  the  unit.  In  this  discussion,  however,  "  large 
acreage"  and  "extensive  culture"  set  against  " small  acreage" 
and  "intensive  culture"  may  mislead.  This  is  a  case  in  which 
a  large  endeavor  may  be  a  small  endeavor,  and  a  small  en- 
deavor a  large  one ;  or,  in  which  it  may  be  well  to  take  the  ad- 
vice of  Virgil,  who  advised  Roman  vineyardists,  "  Praise  great 
estates;  farm  a  small  one." 

The  grape-growing  of  the  times  tends  more  and  more  to 
growing  for  general  markets.  The  grower  plants  to  skim  a 
comparatively  small  return  from  a  large  area.  This  division 


32  MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

of  grape-growing  is  now  well  developed  in  America.  Intensive 
grape-growing  for  local  markets  is  not  well  developed.  There 
are,  however,  many  opportunities  in  America  for  easy  triumphs 
in  fruit-growing  in  the  planting  of  vineyards  for  local  markets. 
No  other  fruit  responds  to  fine  art  in  culture  so  well  as  the 
grape.  Given  choicely  good  varieties  and  a  finely  finished 
product,  and  the  grower  may  have  almost  wrhat  he  desires  for 
the  produce  of  his  skill.  With  the  grape,  too,  palm  of  merit 
goes  with  skill  in  culture;  among  all  who  grow  plants,  only 
the  florist  can  rival  the  viticulturist  in  guiding  the  develop- 
ment of  a  plant  to  a  special  end.  In  cultivating,  fertilizing, 
training,  grafting,  pruning,  spraying,  in  every  cultural  oper- 
ation, the  grape-grower  has  opportunities  to  sell  his  skill  not 
given  in  so  high  degree  to  the  grower  of  other  fruits. 

Labor. 

A  great  advantage  in  the  congregation  of  vineyardists  in 
grape  regions  is  found  when  labor  must  be  obtained.  Skilled 
labor  is  required  to  cultivate  the  vine,  and  such  labor  can  be 
freely  secured  only  in  centers  of  viticulture.  Grape-growing 
is  a  specialists'  business,  and  it  takes  more  than  a  day  or  a 
season  to  make  a  vine-dresser  out  of  a  farmer,  gardener  or  an 
orchardist.  Expert  labor  is  most  easily  obtained  and  is  of  best 
quality  where  grapes  abound.  Common  labor  must  be  somewhat 
abundant,  also,  in  good  vineyard  locations,  for  such  rush  tasks 
as  tying  and  picking.  In  these  two  operations,  women,  chil- 
dren or  other  unskilled  labor  may  be  employed  to  advantage. 
The  grape  harvest  must  often  be  hurried,  and  to  keep  it  in  full 
swing  a  near-by  city  from  which  to  draw  pickers  is  a  great 
asset. 

Vineyard  sites. 

Within  a  grape  region,  the  site  is  important  in  determining 
where  to  plant.  The  site  is  the  local  position  of  the  vineyard. 


GRAPE   REGIONS   AND    THEIR   DETERMINANTS        33 

Sites  cannot  be  standardized,  and  therefore  no  two  are  alike. 
The  cardinal  natural  factors  to  be  secured  in  a  site  are  warmth, 
sun,  air  and  freedom  from  frost.  These  factors  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  a  general  way  under  the  climate  of  grape  regions,  but 
one  needs  to  particularize  a  little  more  closely  to  ascertain  how 
they  affect  individual  vineyards.  Warmth,  sun,  air  and  frost- 
lessness  are  best  secured  by  proximity  to  water,  high  land  and 
proper  exposure. 

Proximity  to  water. 

The  favorable  influences  of  water  are  wrell  illustrated  in  the 
grape  regions  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Canada. 
All  of  the  grape  districts  in  these  regions  are  bounded  on  one 
or  more  sides  by  water.  The  equalizing  effects  of  large  bodies 
of  water  on  temperature,  warmer  winter  and  cooler  summer, 
are  so  well  known  as  scarcely  to  need  comment.  Hardly  less 
important  than  the  effects  of  water  on  temperature  are  the 
off-shore  breezes  of  night  and  the  in-shore  breezes  of  day  which 
blow  on  large  bodies  of  water.  These  keep  the  air  of  the  vine- 
yard in  constant  motion  and  so  prevent  frosts  in  spring  and 
autumn,  and  also  dry  foliage  and  fruit  so  that  spores  of  fungi 
have  difficulty  in  finding  foothold.  But  if  water  brings  fogs, 
dews  and  humidity,  as  does  the  Pacific,  grapes  must  be  planted 
inland ;  otherwise  leaf,  bloom  and  fruit  are  born  in  the  blight 
of  fungi.  The  benign  influences  of  water  are  felt  in  the  eastern 
grape  regions  at  distances  of  one  to  four  miles,  seldom  farther. 
These  narrow  belts  about  the  eastern  waters  are  bounded  on 
the  landward  side  by  high  bluffs  over  which  many  showers  fail 
to  pass  and  which  protect  the  belts  below  from  heavy  dews. 
Where  the  background  of  bluffs  in  these  regions  sinks  to  level 
land,  vineyards  cease. 

Vineyards  are  usually  some  distance  above  the  water,  the 
range  in  altitude  running  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  feet.  Where 
the  altitude  is  much  higher,  immunity  to  frosts  and  winter 


34  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

freezing  ceases,  for  the  reason  that  the  atmosphere  is  rarer  and 
drier  so  that  heat  radiates  rapidly  from  the  land.  As  the 
height  increases,  also,  the  revels  of  the  wind  play  havoc  with 
the  vines.  Yet,  one  is  often  surprised  to  find  good  vineyards 
at  the  level  of  the  lakes  or,  on  the  other  hand,  crowning  high 
hills.  Altitude  in  grape-growing  must,  therefore,  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment.  We  know  very  little  of  the  formation 
of  the  thermal  belts  on  high  land  so  favorable  to  the  grape. 

The  lay  of  the  land. 

We  associate  the  grape  with  rugged  land ;  as  the  vines  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  the  rolling  lands  of  Burgundy,  the 
slopes  of  Vesuvius  and  Olympus,  the  high  hills  of  Madeira,  the 
cloud-capped  mountains  of  Teneriffe,  mountain  slopes  in 
California  and  the  escarpments  of  grape  regions  in  eastern 
America.  These  examples  prove  how  well  adapted  rolling 
lands,  inclined  plains  and  even  steep  and  rocky  hillsides  are  to 
the  culture  of  the  vine.  Virgil  long  ago  wrote,  "Bacchus  is 
partial  to  broad,  sunny  hills/'  Yet  rolling  lands  are  not  es- 
sential to  the  culture  of  the  grape,  for  in  Europe  and  America 
very  good  grapes  are  grown  on  unsheltered  plains,  provided 
the  land  has  an  elevation  on  one  or  more  boundaries  above  the 
surrounding  country.  If  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
which  the  grape  requires  can  be  found  on  level  land  or  moder- 
ate slopes,  such  situations  are  much  better  than  steep  decliv- 
ities, since  on  these  the  cost  of  all  vineyard  operations  is  greater 
and  heavy  rains  erode  the  soil.  The  soil  on  hills,  too,  is  often 
scant  and  niggardly.  Level  land,  however,  must  not  be  shut 
in  on  all  sides  by  higher  land  as  untimely  frost  will  often 
lay  waste  vines  in  such  a  situation. 

Exposures. 

The  exposure,  or  the  slope  of  the  land  toward  a  point  of  the 
compass,  is  important  in  choosing  a  site  for  the  vineyard,  al- 


GRAPE   REGIONS    AND    THEIR    DETERMINANTS        35 

though  the  value  of  particular  exposures  is  often  exaggerated. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  good  grapes  may  be  grown  in  vine- 
yards exposed  to  any  point  of  the  compass,  but  that  slight  ad- 
vantages may  sometimes  come,  depending  on  the  particular 
environment  of  the  plantation,  and  then  solve  the  problem  ac- 
cording to  conditions.  The  following  are  theories  as  to  exposure  : 
A  southern  exposure  is  warmer  and  hence  earlier  than  a  north- 
ern, and  is,  therefore,  the  best  slope  for  early  grapes  as  well  as 
for  very  late  ones  liable  to  be  caught  by  frost.  Northward 
and  westward  slopes  retard  the  leafing  and  blooming  period, 
thus  often  enabling  the  grape  to  escape  untimely  spring  frosts ; 
though  to  plant  on  such  slopes  may  be  robbing  Peter  to  pay 
Paul,  as  what  is  gained  in  retardation  in  spring  may  be  lost  in 
the  fall  with  the  result  that  the  vines  may  be  caught  by. frost 
and  may  fail  to  ripen  their  crop.  Frost  damage  is  usually 
greatest  on  a  bold  eastern  slope,  and  vines  suffer  most  in  win- 
ter freezes  on  this  exposure,  since  the  direct  rays  of  the  rising 
sun  strike  the  frozen  plants  so  that.they  are  more  injured  than 
otherwise  by  rapid  thawing.  In  locations  near  bodies  of  water, 
the  best  slope  is  toward  the  water,  regardless  of  direction. 
The  exposure  may  sometimes  be  selected  to  advantage  with 
reference  to  the  prevailing  winds. 


CHAPTER  III 
PROPAGATION 

THE  grape  commends  itself  to  commercial  and  amateur 
growers  alike  by  its  ease  of  propagation.  The  vines  of  all 
species  may  be  propagated  from  seed,  and  all  but  one  of  the 
several  cultivated  species  may  be  grown  readily  from  cuttings 
or  layers.  All  yield  to  grafting  of  one  kind  or  another.  Seeds 
are  planted  only  to  produce  new  varieties.  At  one  time  stocks 
were  grown  from  seed,  but  this  practice  has  fallen  into  dis- 
repute because  of  the  great  variations  in  the  seedlings.  Varie- 
ties on  their  own  roots  and  stocks  are  for  most  part  propagated 
from  cuttings.  In  the  production  of  stocks,  the  viticulturist 
sets  the  orchardist  a  good  example,  for  there  can  be  no  question 
that  all  tree-fruits  suffer  from  being  grown  on  seedling  stocks. 
The  grape  is  a  vigorous,  self-assertive  plant  and  once  it  is  started, 
whether  from  seeds,  cuttings  or  layers,  seldom  fails  to  grow. 

SEEDLINGS 

Growing  seedling  grapes  is  the  simplest  of  operations.  The 
seeds  are  taken  from  the  grapes  at  harvest  time,  after  which 
they  must  pass  through  a  resting  period  of  a  few  months.  At 
once  or  in  a  month  or  two,  the  seeds  should  be  stratified  in  moist 
sand  and  stored  in  a  cold  place  until  spring,  when  they  may  be 
sown  in  flats  or  in  the  open  ground ;  or  seed  may  be  sown  in  a 
well-prepared  piece  of  garden  land  in  the  autumn.  When 
planted  in  the  open,  autumn  or  spring,  the  seeds  are  put  in  at 
the  depth  of  an  inch,  an  inch  or  two  apart  and  in  rows  conven- 
ient for  cultivation.  Subsequent  care  consists  of  cultivation 

36 


PROPAGATION  37 

if  the  seed  are  sown  in  garden  rows,  and  in  pricking  out  when 
true  leaves  appear  if  planted  in  flats.  In  ground  that  crusts, 
an  expedient  is  to  mix  grape  seed  with  apple  seed ;  the  apple 
seedlings,  being  more  vigorous,  break  the  crust  and  act  as 
nurse  plants  to  the  more  tender  grapes.  Sometimes  it  is  help- 
ful to  the  young  plants  to  mulch  the  ground  lightly  with  lawn 
clippings  or  moss.  Grape  seedlings  grow  rapidly,  often  making 
from  two  to  three  feet  of  wood  in  a  season. 

The  young  plants  are  thinned  or  set  to  stand  four  or  five 
inches  apart  in  the  nursery  row.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season, 
all  plants  are  cut  back  severely  and  almost  entirely  covered 
with  earth  by  plowing  up  to  the  row  on  both  sides.  This 
earth,  of  course,  is  leveled  the  following  spring.  If  the  seasons 
are  propitious  and  all  goes  well,  the  seedlings  are  ready  for  the 
vineyard  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  but  if  for  any  reason 
they  have  fared  badly  during  their  first  two  years,  it  is  much 
better  to  give  them  a  third  season  in  the  nursery.  Seedling 
vines  are  seldom  as  vigorous  as  those  from  cuttings,  and  un- 
usual care  must  be  taken  in  setting  in  the  vineyard,  though 
the  operation  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  to  be  described  for 
vines  from  cuttings.  The  third  season  the  vines  are  kept  to 
a  single  shoot  and  are  pinched  back  when  the  canes  reach  a 
length  of  five  or  six  feet.  In  the  autumn,  they  are  pruned 
back  to  two  or  three  feet.  In  the  spring  of  the  fourth  season, 
the  trellis  is  put  up  and  a  few  fruits  may  be  allowed  to  ripen. 

The  vines  of  promise  may  now  be  selected.  The  plants, 
however,  must  fruit  twice  or  oftener  before  it  can  be  told 
whether  hopes  are  consummated  or  must  be  deferred.  Grow- 
ing seedlings  for  new  varieties  is  a  game  full  of  chances  in  which, 
while  there  may  be  little  immediate  or  individual  gain,  there 
is  much  pleasure.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  grape 
industry  of  eastern  America,  with  its  300,000  acres  and  1500 
varieties,  betokens  the  good  that  has  come  from  growing  seed- 
ling grapes. 


38  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

DORMANT  CUTTINGS 

Vines  for  vineyards,  with  the  exception  of  varieties  of  Rotun- 
difolia,  are  propagated  from  cuttings  of  hard  wood  taken  from 
the  season's  canes  when  the  vines  are  pruned.  The  inactive 
buds  in  these  cuttings  may  be  brought  into  active  growth, 
and  roots  induced  to  grow  from  the  cut  surfaces  by  various 
means.  By  this  miracle  of  Nature,  an  infinite  number  of 
plants,  in  an  endless  procession,  may  be  propagated  from  the 
product  of  a  single  seed,  each  plant  complete  in  its  heredity  and 
differing  from  its  fellows  only  in  accordance  with  environment. 

Time  to  make  cuttings. 

A  good  cutting  should  have  a  protective  callus  over  the  cut 
and  this  requires  time,  so  that  the  sooner  cuttings  are  made 
after  the  wood  becomes  thoroughly  dormant  the  better.  Be- 
sides, the  cutting  should  use  its  stored  food  material  for  the 
formation  of  adventitious  roots  rather  than  have  it  pass  into 
buds,  as  it  quickly  does  late  in  the  dormant  season  when  buds 
are  about  to  open.  If  cuttings  must  be  made  late  in  the  season, 
transplanting  must  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible,  and  the 
cuttings  be  set  in  a  northerly  aspect  to  prevent  the  premature 
development  of  the  buds.  However,  the  grape  responds  sur- 
prisingly well  to  the  call  of  Nature  in  forming  roots,  and  great 
importance  need  not  be  attached  to  the  time  at  which  the  cut- 
tings are  made. 

Selecting  cutting  wood. 

Cuttings  are  made  from  one-year-old  wood ;  that  is,  canes 
produced  during  the  summer  are  taken  for  cuttings  in  the  fall. 
Immature  canes  and  those  with  soft,  spongy  wood  ought  not 
to  be  used.  Strong  vigorous  canes  should  be  given  preference 
over  weak  growth,  but  most  nurserymen  maintain  that  very 
large  canes  do  not  make  as  good  cuttings  as  do  those  of  medium 


PROPAGATION  39 

size,  the  objection  to  large  size  being  that  the  cuttings  do  not 
root  as  well.  Short-jointed  wood  is  better  than  long-jointed. 
Cuttings  from  vines  weakened  by  insects  and  fungi  are  liable 
to  be  wreak,  soft,  immature  and  poorly  stored  with  food.  The 
wood  should  be  smooth  and  straight. 

Making  the  cutting. 

Grape  cuttings  vary  in  length  from  four  inches  to  two  feet, 
the  length  depending  on  the  climate  and  the  soil  of  the  nursery 
and  the  species  and  variety.  The  hotter  and  drier  the  climate 
and  the  lighter  the  soil,  the  longer  the  cutting  needs  to  be. 
Six  to  nine  inches,  however,  is  the  usual  length  in  the  climate 
of  eastern  America,  while  on  the  Pacific  slope  the  length  varies 
from  eight  to  fifteen  inches.  For  convenience  in  handling, 
all  cuttings  should  be  approximately  of  the  same  length,  to 
insure  which  some  kind  of  simple  gauge  is  needed.  Various 
gauges  are  used,  as  marks  cut  in  the  working  table,  a  stick  of 
the  required  length,  or  a  cutting-box. 

In  making  the  cuttings,  a  slanting  cut  is  made  close  below 
the  lowest  bud,  while  about  an  inch  of  wood  is  left  above  the 
upper  bud.  When  possible,  a  heel  of  old  wood  is  left  at  the 
lower  end ;  or,  still  better,  a  whorl  of  buds,  as  roots  usually 
start  from  each  bud.  The  finished  cuttings  are  tied  in  bundles, 
all  butts  one  way,  and  are  then  ready  to  be  heeled-in.  This  is 
done  by  burying  in  trenches,  butts  up,  and  covering  with  a  few 
inches  of  soil.  It  is  important  to  invert  the  cuttings  in  trench- 
ing, since  otherwise  the  tops  often  start  to  grow  before  the  butts 
are  properly  calloused,  and  it  is  very  essential  that  the  tops 
remain  dormant  until  roots  appear  to  support  the  new  growth. 

Planting  the  cuttings. 

Cuttings  are  planted  in  the  nursery  in  rows  wide  enough 
apart  for  cultivation  and  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
Trenches  are  made  with  a  plow ;  perpendicular  if  the  cuttings 


40 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


"  '- 


FIG.  6.     Planting  cuttings. 


are  shorter,  and  a  little  slanting  if  longer  than  six  inches.     The 
cuttings  are  set  at  a  depth  which  permits  the  upper  buds  to 

project  above  the  ground, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  When 
the  cuttings  in  a  row  are 
placed,  two  inches  of  soil 
are  put  in  and  pressed 
firmly  about  the  base  of 
the  cuttings.  Then  the 
trench  is  evenly  filled 
with  earth  and  the  cul- 
tivator follows.  Doing 
duty  by  the  young  plants 
consists  in  cultivating 
often  during  the  sum- 
mer to  keep  the  soil  moist  and  mellow. 
The  cuttings  are  planted  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  warm  and  dry  enough  to  work. 
To  delay  planting  too  long  invites  injury 
from  drought,  which  almost  annually  parches 
the  land  in  eastern  America.  Irrigation 
gives  more  leeway  to  planting  time  in  the 
West.  When  warm  sunny  weather,  accom- 
panied by  an  occasional  shower,  predomi- 
nates, the  cuttings  start  growth  almost  at 
once,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  by  fall,  all 
things  being  propitious,  make  a  growth 
from  four  to  six  feet.  With  the  cuttings 
three  inches  and  the  rows  three  feet 
apart,  58,080  vines  may  be  grown  to  the  acre. 


FIG.  7.     A  cutting 
beginning  growth. 


Single-eye  cuttings. 

New  and  rare  varieties  are  propagated  from  single-eye  cut- 
tings, thereby  doubling  the  number  of  plants  from  the  propa- 


PROPAGATION  41 

gating  wood.  This  method  gives  an  opportunity,  also,  to 
start  the  work  of  propagating  early  in  the  season,  since  single- 
eye  cuttings  are  nearly  always  rooted  by  artificial  heat.  But 
the  greatest  value  of  the  method  is  that  some  varieties  which 
cannot  be  propagated  in  any  other  way  readily  grow  under 
artificial  heat  from  single-eyes.  Well-grown  vines  so  propa- 
gated are  as  good  as  those  grown  by  any  other  method,  but 
the  great  disadvantage  is  that  unless  much  care  and  skill  are 
used,  vines  from  these  cuttings  are  poor  and  quite  worthless. 
It  is  also  a  more  expensive  method  than  growing  from  long 
cuttings  out  of  doors. 

There  are  several  ways  of  making  single-eye  cuttings.  The 
most  common  form  of  the  cutting  is  the  single  bud  with  an  inch 
of  wood  above  and  below,  the  ends  being  cut  with  a  slant. 
Some  modify  this  form  by  cutting  away  the  wood  on  the  side 
opposite  the  bud,  exposing  the  pith  the  whole  length  of  the 
cutting.  In  another  form,  a  square  cut  is  made  directly  under 
the  bud,  leaving  an  inch  and  a  half  of  wood  above.  Or  this  last 
form  is  modified  by  making  a  long  sloping  cut  from  the  bud  to 
the  upper  end,  thereby  exposing  the  maximum  amount  of 
cambium.  Advantages  are  claimed  for  each  form,  but  these  are 
mostly  imaginary,  and  the  cutting  may  be  made  to  suit  the 
fancy  of  the  propagator  if  a  few  essentials  are  observed. 

Single-eye  cuttings  are  made  in  the  fall  and  are  stored  in  sand 
until  late  winter,  about  February  in  New  York.  At  this  time 
the  cuttings  are  planted  horizontally  an  inch  deep  in  a  sand 
propagating  bench  in  a  cool  greenhouse.  If  the  cuttings  are 
not  well  calloused,  they  remain  one  or  two  weeks  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  to  50°  without  bottom  heat,  but  well-made  cuttings 
are  calloused  and  ready  to  strike  root  so  that  brisk  bottom 
heat  can  be  applied  at  once.  After  six  weeks  or  two  months, 
the  young  plants  are  ready  to  pot  off  or  to  transplant  in  a  cold- 
frame  or  cool  greenhouse.  If  but  a  few  plants  are  to  be  grown, 
they  may  be  started  in  two-  or  three-inch  pots,  shifting  into 


42  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

larger  pots  once  or  twice  as  growth  progresses.  In  early 
summer,  the  young  plants  are  set  in  nursery  rows  out  of  doors 
and  by  fall  the  young  vines  should  be  strong  and  vigorous. 

Single-eyes  are  also  started  in  hot-beds,  cold-frames  and 
even  in  the  open  air  without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  In 
hot-beds  and  cold-frames,  the  method  is  only  a  modification 
of  that  described  for  greenhouses.  Out  of  doors  the  cuttings 
are  given  the  same  conditions  under  which  long  cuttings  are 
rooted,  except  that  the  whole  of  the  short  cutting  is  buried 
an  inch  deep  in  the  nursery  row. 

HERBACEOUS  CUTTINGS 

Grapes  are  easily  propagated  from  herbaceous  cuttings, 
although  since  the  vines  are  weak  and  the  method  expensive, 
they  are  seldom  used.  Green  cuttings  are  usually  taken  from 
plants  forced  in  greenhouses,  but  may  be  taken  in  summer 
from  vineyard  vines.  A  green  cutting  is  usually  cut  with  two 
buds  with  the  leaf  at  the  upper  one  left  on.  The  cuttings 
are  set  in  propagating  beds  of  sand,  or  pots  of  sand,  in  close 
frames  under  which  there  is  brisk  bottom  heat.  To  prevent 
excessive  evaporation,  the  frames  are  kept  closed  and  the 
atmosphere  warm  and  moist.  As  growth  progresses,  or  if 
mildew  appears,  the  frames  are  more  and  more  ventilated.  In 
two  to  four  weeks,  the  cuttings  should  have  rooted  sufficiently 
well  to  be  transplanted  to  pots.  Herbaceous  cuttings  made 
in  the  summer  must  be  kept  under  glass  until  the  following 
spring. 

LAYERING 

The  grape  is  readily  propagated  from  layers  of  either  green 
or  mature  wood,  the  method  being  certain,  convenient  and 
producing  extra  vigorous  plants.  The  drawback  is  that  fewer 
plants  can  be  obtained  by  layering  than  from  cuttings  with  a 


PROPAGATION  43 

given  amount  of  wood.  Varieties  of  some  species,  however, 
cannot  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  with  these  layering 
becomes  of  supreme  importance  to  the  propagator.  Nearly 
all  varieties  of  Rotundifolia  and  some  of  ^Estivalis  are  best 
grown  from  layers.  So  far  as  is  known,  all  varieties  of  culti- 
vated species  may  be  grown  by  layering,  and  since  the  method 
is  simple  and  certain  and  the  vines  vigorous  and  easily  handled, 
this  method  is  commended  to  small  growers  of  grapes. 

Dormant  wood  layering. 

The  work  of  layering  mature  wood  usually  begins  in  the 
spring,  but  the  vines  from  which  the  layers  are  to  be  taken 
should  have  received  preliminary  treatment  the  preceding  sea- 
son. The  vines  to  be  layered  are  severely  cut  back  a  year 
or  more  before  the  layering  is  to  be  done  to  induce  a  vigorous 
growth  of  canes.  Strong  vigorous  canes  are  laid  in  a  shallow 
trench,  two  to  five  inches  deep,  in  which  they  are  fastened  with 
wood  or  wire  pegs  or  staples.  The  trench  is  then  partly  filled 
with  fine,  moist,  mellow  earth  which  is  firmly  packed  about 
the  cane.  Roots  strike  and  shoots  spring  from  each  joint. 
When  the  young  plants  are  well  above  ground,  the  trench  is 
completely  filled,  and  then,  or  a  little  later,  the  young  plants 
are  staked  to  keep  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  cultivator.  The 
following  fall  the  young  vines  are  ready  to  transplant. 

The  essentials  of  layering  have  been  given,  but  a  number  of 
non-essentials  may  be  helpful  under  some  conditions.  Thus, 
dormant  wood  may  be  layered  in  the  fall,  in  which  case  the 
cane  is  usually  notched  or  ringed  at  the  joint  to  induce  the 
formation  of  roots.  The  less  the  number  of  joints  covered, 
the  stronger  the  young  vines,  so  that  while  the  number  is  usu- 
ally five,  six  or  more  extra  vigorous  plants  may  be  obtained 
by  covering  only  one  or  two  joints.  In  propagating  Rotun- 
difolia grapes,  it  is  expected  that  lateral  branches  will  make 
the  tops  of  the  new  plants.  These,  at  the  time  of  layering,  are 


44          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

cut  back  to  eight  or  ten  inches,  all  on  the  same  side  of  the  vine, 
and  are  not  left  closer  together  than  twelve  inches.  In  nursery 
practice,  Rotundifolia  vines  are  trained  along  the  ground  for 
layering.  Vines  on  arbors,  in  greenhouses,  or  on  sides  of 
buildings  are  easily  layered  in  boxes  or  pots  of  soil.  Plants 
grown  from  layers  are  not  as  conveniently  handled  as  those 
from  cuttings. 

Green  wood  layering. 

Layered  plants  from  green  wood  are  sometimes  grown  to 
multiply  quickly  new  or  rare  varieties.  The  work  is  accom- 
plished in  midsummer  by  bending  down  and  covering  shoots 
of  the  present  season's  growth.  Strong  plants  are  seldom 
obtained  from  summer-layering  and  it  is  never  safe  to  attempt 
to  grow  more  than  one  or  two  plants  from  a  shoot.  The  most 
forceful  culture  possible  must  be  given  summer-layered  plants 
after  the  separation  from  the  parent  vine.  It  is  very  generally 
agreed  that  plants  from  summer-layers  not  only  do  not  give 
good  plants,  but  that  the  parent  vine  is  injured  in  taking  an 
offspring  from  it  in  this  way. 

Layering  to  fill  vacancies  in  the  vineyard. 

There  is  sure  to  be  an  occasional  gap  even  in  the  best  vine- 
yard. Young  plants  set  in  vacancies  must  compete  with 
neighboring  full-grown  vines,  and  often  in  a  bit  of  land  so  un- 
favorable that  it  may  have  been  the  cause  of  the  demise  of 
the  original  occupant.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  new- 
comer stands  a  poor  chance  for  life.  A  plant  introduced  by 
layering  a  strong  cane  from  a  nearby  vine  has  little  difficulty 
in  establishing  itself  on  its  own  roots,  after  which  it  can  be 
separated  from  the  parent.  Such  layering  is  best  done  by 
taking  in  early  spring  a  strong,  unpruned  cane  from  an  ad- 
joining plant  in  the  same  row  and  covering  an  end  joint  six 
inches  deep  in  the  vacant  place,  but  leaving  sufficient  wood  on 


PROPAGATION  45 

the  end  of  the  cane  to  turn  up  perpendicularly  out  of  the  soil. 
This  free  end  becomes  the  new  plant  and  by  the  following  fall 
or  spring  may  be  separated  from  its  parent.  Not  infrequently 
the  young  plant  bears  fruit  the  second  season  on  its  own  roots. 
This  method  is  of  especial  value  in  small  plantations,  whereby 
the  trouble  of  ordering  one  or  two  plants  is  avoided  and  the 
advantage  of  early  fruiting  is  obtained. 

GRAFTING 

Since  grafting  grapes  is  intimately  connected  with  stocks, 
the  growing  of  which  is  a  modern  practice,  grafting  is  thought 
of  as  a  new  process  in  growing  this  fruit.  Quite  to  the  contrary, 
it  is  an  old  practice.  Cato,  the  sturdy  old  Roman  grape-grower 
who  lived  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  Christ,  speaks  of 
grafting  grapes,  although  Theophrastus,  the  Greek  philosopher, 
wrote  a  hundred  years  before  "  the  vine  cannot  be  grafted  upon 
itself."  However,  until  it  became  necessary  to  grow  Vinifera 
grapes  on  resistant  stocks  to  avoid  the  ravages  of  phylloxera, 
grafting  the  grape  was  not  at  all  common  among  vineyardists 
and  is  not  now  except  where  vines  susceptible  to  phylloxera 
must  be  grown  in  consort  with  roots  resistant  to  this  insect,  or 
to  modify  the  vigor  of  the  top  by  a  stock  more  vigorous  or  less 
vigorous.  For  these  two  purposes,  grafting  is  now  in  some 
grape  regions  one  of  the  most  important  vineyard  operations. 

In  grafting  the  grape,  there  is  a  time  and  a  way,  not  so  par- 
ticular as  many  believe,  but  rather  more  particular  than  in 
grafting  most  other  fruits.  If  the  essentials  of  grafting  are 
kept  in  mind,  one  has  considerable  choice  of  details.  Graft- 
ing consists  in  detaching  and  inserting  one  or  several  buds  of  a 
mother  plant  on  another  plant  of  the  same  or  a  similar  kind ; 
the  bud  stock  is  the  cion,  the  rooted  plant  is  the  stock.  The 
essentials  may  be  set  forth  in  three  statements:  First,  the 
prime  essential  is  that  the  cambium  layers,  the  healing  tissue 


46  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

lying  between  the  bark  and  wood,  meet  in  the  cion  and  stock ; 
second,  that  method  of  grafting  is  best  in  which  the  cut  tissues 
heal  most  rapidly  and  most  completely;  third,  the  greater 
the  amount  of  cambium  contact,  as  compared  with  the  whole 
cut  surface,  the  more  rapidly  and  completely  the  wounds  will 
heal.  Out  of  a  great  many,  the  following  are  a  few  of  the 
simplest  methods  in  use  in  grafting  the  grape,  any  one  of  which 
may  be  modified  more  or  less  as  occasion  calls. 

Vineyard  grafting  in  eastern  America. 

In  eastern  America,  the  growing  vine  is  usually  grafted. 
At  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  the  opera- 
tion is  very  successfully  performed  on  old  vines  as  follows: 
Preparatory  to  grafting,  the  earth  is  removed  from  around  the 

stock  to  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  inches.  The  vines  are 
then  decapitated  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  at 
right  angles  with  the  axis 
of  tne  stock-  If  the  grain 
is  straight,  the  cleft  can  be 

FIG.  8.     Cutting  off  the  trunk.  made     by     Splitting    with    a 

chisel,  but  more  often  it  will 

have  to  be  done  with  a  thin-bladed  saw  through  the  center  of 
the  stock  for  at  least  two  inches.  The  cion  is  cut  with  two 
buds,  the  wedge  being  started  at  the  lower  bud.  The  cleft 
in  the  stock  is  then  opened,  and  the  cion  inserted  so  that  the 
cambium  of  stock  and  cion  are  in  intimate  contact.  If  the 
stock  is  large,  two  cions  are  used.  The  several  operations  in 
grafting  are  shown  in  Figs.  8,  9,  10  and  11.  Graf  ting  wax  is 
unnecessary,  in  fact  is  often  worse  than  useless,  and  if  the 
stock  is  large  the  graft  is  not  even  tied.  Raffia  is  used  to  tie 
the  graft  in  young  vines.  It  suffices  to  mound  the  graft  to 
the  top  of  the  cion  with  earth,  for  the  purposes  of  protec- 


PROPAGATION 


47 


FIG.  9.     Cutting  the  cleft. 


tion  and  to  keep  the  graft  moist.  Two  or  three  times 
during  the  summer,  sprouts  coming  from  the  stock  or  roots 
from  the  cion  should  be  removed. 
A  method  used  with  fair  success 
at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  with  young  vines 
is  to  plant  one-year-old  stocks  in 
the  nursery  row  as  soon  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring. 
Just  as  the  vines  start  in  growth, 
these  are  cut  off  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  whip-  or  cleft-grafted  with  a  two-eye  cion.  The 
graft  is  tied  with  raffia,  after  which  it  is  all  but  covered  with 

a  mound  of  soil.  This  is  a  case  in 
which  the  work  must  be  done  at  the 
accepted  time,  as  it  is  fatal  to  delay. 
R.  D.  Anthony  describes  another 
method  as  follows:1  "A  method 
which  a  Pennsylvania  grower  of 
Yiniferas  has  found  very  satisfactory 
is  to  root  the  Vinifera  cuttings,  and 
grow  them  one  year  on  their  own 
roots;  then  the  vine 
which  is  to  be  used 

as  a  stock  is  planted  in  the  vineyard  and  the 
rooted  cutting  planted   beside  it   so   that  the 
shoots  from  the  two  may  be  brought  in  con- 
tact with  each  other.     In  June  when  the  plants 
are  in  full  growth,  two  vigorous  shoots'  (one 
from   each  vine)  are  brought   together  and  a 
cut    two  or  three  inches  long  made    in    each 
parallel  to  the  length  of  the  cane  removing  from  one-third 
to  one-half  of  the  thickness  of  the  shoot.     These  flat  surfaces 
1  Anthony,  R.  D.     N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  632:  88.     1917. 


FIG.  10.     Inserting  the  cion. 


Fio.   11.      The 


48  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

exposed  by  the  cuts  are  then  brought  into  contact  with  the 
cambium  tissues  touching  and  are  tied  in  place.  The  tops  are 
checked  somewhat  by  breaking  off  some  of  the  growth.  The 
following  spring  the  Vinifera  roots  are  cut  off  below  the  graft 
and  the  top  of  the  stock  above  the  graft  is  removed." 

In  the  subsequent  care  of  these  young  vines,  the  grower 
must  take  time  by  the  forelock  and  tie  the  grafts  to  suitable 
stakes ;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  be  broken  off  at  the  union 
by  wind  or  careless  workmen.  Grafted  vineyards  must  have 
extra  good  care  in  all  cultural  operations,  and  even  with  the 
best  of  care  from  5  to  50  per  cent  of  the  grafts  will  fail  or  grow 
so  poorly  as  to  make  regrafting  necessary,  this  being  the  most 
unfavorable  circumstance  of  field  grafting.  Regrafting  is 
done  one  joint  lower  than  the  first  operation  to  avoid  dead 
wood ;  this  brings  the  union  below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  the  vineyardist  must  expect  many  cion  roots  to  try  his 
patience. 

Vineyard  grafting  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

Vineyard  grafting,  according  to  Bioletti,1  was  formerly  the 
commonest  method  of  starting  resistant  vineyards  in  Cali- 
fornia. After  stating  that  it  is  best  whenever  possible  to  plant 
good  cuttings  rather  than  roots,  and  that  the  grafting  should 
usually  be  done  the  year  after  planting,  Bioletti  gives  the 
following  directions  for  grafting : 2 

"Wherever  possible  the  vines  should  be  grafted  at  or  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  go  below  the  surface  to  find  a  smooth,  suitable 
part  of  the  stock  where  grafting  is  possible. 

"The  kind  of  graft  to  use  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  stock. 
For  stocks  up  to  f  inch  in  diameter  the  methods  of  tongue  and 
wire  grafting  already  described  are  the  best.  For  larger  vines 

1  Bioletti,  Frederic  T.     Calif.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  180:  135.     1906. 

2  Ibid.,  136-138. 


PLATE  III.  —  Cover-crops.     Top,  cow-horn  turnips ;    bottom,  rye. 


PROPAGATION  49 

up  to  f  inch  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  tongue  graft  is  the 
best.  If  the  tongue  graft  were  made  in  the  usual  way  with 
stocks  of  this  size,  it  Would  be  necessary  to  use  excessively 
large  scions,  which  is  undesirable,  or  to  have  the  barks  unite 
only  on  one  side.  By  cutting  the  bevel  of  the  stock  only  part 
way  through  the  vines,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  smaller  scion 
unite  on  both  sides.  For  still  larger  vines,  those  over  f  inch 
in  diameter,  the  best  graft  is  the  ordinary  cleft. 

"No  wax  or  clay  should  be  used  on  the  graft.  Anything 
which  completely  excludes  the  air  prevents  the  knitting  of 
the  tissues.  A  little  clay,  cloth,  or  a  leaf  may  be  placed  over 
the  split  in  the  stock  when  the  cleft  graft  is  used,  simply  to 
keep  out  the  soil.  Otherwise  there  is  nothing  more  suitable 
or  more  favorable  to  the  formation  of  a  good  union  that  can 
be  put  around  the  graft  than  loose,  moist  soil.  If  the  soil  is 
clayey,  stiff  or  lumpy,  it  is  necessary  to  surround  the  union 
with  loose  soil  or  sand  brought  from  outside  the  vineyard. 

"It  will  usually  be  necessary  to  tie  the  grafts.  A  well- 
made  cleft  graft  often  holds  the  scion  with  sufficient  force  to 
prevent  its  displacement  and  no  tying  is  necessary.  Wher- 
ever there  is  any  danger  of  the  graft  moving,  however,  it  should 
be  tied.  There  is  nothing  better  for  this  purpose  than  or- 
dinary raffia.  The  raffia  should  not  be  bluestoned,  as  it  will 
last  long  enough  without  and  will  be  sure  to  rot  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  the  trouble  of  cutting  it  will  be  avoided.  Cotton  string 
or  anything  which  will  keep  the  graft  in  place  for  a  few  weeks 
may  also  be  used. 

"As  soon  as  the  graft  is  ma3e  and  tied,  a  stake  should  be 
driven  and  the  union  covered  with  a  little  Dearth.  The  hilling 
up  of  the  graft  may  be  left  for  a  few  hours,  except  in  very  hot, 
dry  weather.  Finally,  the  whole  graft  should  be  covered  with 
a  broad  hill  of  loose  soil  2  inches  above  the  top  of  the  scion. 

"Field  grafting  should  not  be  commenced  as  a  rule,  except 
in  the  hottest  and  driest  localities,  before  the  middle  of  March. 


50          MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Before  that  there  is  too  much  danger  that  heavy  rains  may 
keep  the  soil  soaked  for  several  weeks  —  a  condition  very 
unfavorable  to  the  formation  of  good  unions.  In  any  case 
the  grafting  should  not  be  done  while  the  soil  is  wet.  Graft- 
ing may  continue  as  long  as  the  cuttings  can  be  kept  dormant. 
It  is  difficult  to  graft  successfully,  however,  when  the  bark  of 
the  stock  becomes  loose,  as  it  does  soon  after  the  middle  of 
April  in  most  localities/' 

As  in  the  East,  it  is  necessary  in  California  to  remove  suckers 
from  the  roots  and  roots  from  the  cions  once  or  twice  during 
the  summer.  SucKers  should  not  be  allowed  to  overshade  the 
graft,  though  it  is  best  not  to  remove  them  until  danger  of 
disturbing  the  graft  is  past.  The  grafts  should  be  staked  and 
the  vines  looked  after  as  recommended  for  eastern  conditions. 

Bench  grafting. 

The  resistant  vineyards  of  France  and  California  are  now 
started  almost  entirely  with  bench-grafted  vines.  It  has  been 
learned  in  these  regions  that  a  grafted  vine,  to  be  a  permanent 
success,  must  have  the  consorting  parts  perfectly  united,  and 
that  the  sooner  the  grafting  is  done  in  the  life  of  stock  and  cion 
the  better  the  union.  Cions  of  the  variety  wanted  are,  there- 
fore, grafted  on  resistant  roots  or  resistant  cuttings  in  the 
workshop  and  then  planted  in  the  nursery.  Bench  grafting 
has  the  advantage  over  field  grafting  in  time  gained  and  in 
securing  a  fuller  stand  of  vines. 

Bench  grafting  really  begins  with  the  selection  of  cuttings, 
since  success  largely  depends  on  good  cuttings  of  both  stock 
and  cion.  Cuttings  are  taken  from  strong  healthy  vines  and 
are  of  medium  size,  with  short  to  medium  joints.  The  best 
size  is  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  that  of  stock  and  cion 
being  the  same  since  the  two  must  match  exactly.  The  cutting- 
wood  may  be  taken  from  the  mother  vines  at  any  time  during 
the  dormant  season  up  to  two  weeks  before  buds  swell  in  the 


PROPAGATION 


51 


spring,  and  the  cuttings  can  then  be  made  as  convenience 
dictates,  though  meanwhile  the  wood  must  be  kept  cool  and 
moist,  which  is  best  done  by  covering  them  with  moist  but  not 
wet  soil  or  sand  in  a  cellar  or  cool  shed.  In  California,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  when  the  grafting  is  done  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March,  though  it  may  be  begun  earlier  and  continued 
a  month  later. 

Preparation  of  cuttings. 

The  stocks  are  cut  into  lengths  of  about  ten  inches,  a  gauge 
being  used  to  secure  uniform  length.  The  cut  at  the  bottom  is 
made  through  a  bud  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  diaphragm. 
The  top  cut  is  made  as  near  ten 
inches  from  the  bottom  as  possi- 
ble, leaving  about  one  and  one- 
half  inches  above  the  top  bud  for 
convenience  in  grafting.  The 
stock  is  then  disbudded,  taking 
both  visible  and  adventitious 
buds,  the  latter  indicated  by 
woody  enlargements,  to  keep 
down  the  number  of  suckers. 

The  cion  should  be  made  with 
but  one  bud,  thereby  gaining  the 
advantage  of  having  every  cion 
the  same  length  so  that  all  unions 
are  at  the  same  distance  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the 
nursery.  The  cion  is  made  with 
about  two  and  one-half  inches 
of  internode  below  the  bud  and  one-half  inch  above,  a  sharp 
knife  being  the  best  tool  for  making  the  cuts. 

Stock  and  cion  cuttings  are  now  graded  to  exactly  the  same  di- 
ameters, this  being  necessary  to  secure  perfection  in  the  unions. 


FIG.  12.  Bench-grafted  cuttings 
of  grape,  ^howing  both  the  cleft- 
graft  and  the  whip-graft. 


52  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Three  methods  of  uniting  stock  and  cion  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  12.  It  suffices  to  grade  by  the  eye  into  three  lots  —  large, 
small  and  medium  —  but  some  nurserymen  prefer  to  secure 
even  greater  accuracy  by  the  use  of  any  one  of  several  mechan- 
ical gauges.  The  methods  of  uniting  stock  and  cion  may  be 
described  best  by  quoting  Bioletti,  from  whom  most  of  the 
details  already  given  have  been  summarized : 1 

Tongue  grafting. 

"When  the  stocks  and  scions  are  prepared  and  graded  the 
grafter  takes  a  box  of  stocks  and  a  box  of  the  corresponding 
size  of  scions  and  unites  them.  Each  is  cut  at  the  same  angle 
in  such  a  way  that  when  placed  together  the  cut  surface  of 
one  exactly  fits  and  covers  the  whole  of  the  cut  surface  of  the 
other.  The  length  of  cut  surface  should  be  from  three  to  four 
times  the  diameter  of  the  cutting,  the  shorter  cut  for  the  larger 
sizes  and  the  longer  for  the  thinner.  This  will  correspond 
to  an  angle  of  from  14.5  to  19.5  degrees.  The  cut  should  be 
made  with  a  sliding  movement  of  the  knife.  This  will  make 
the  cut  more  easily  and  more  smoothly. 

"The  cut  should  be  made  with  a  single  quick  motion  of  the 
knife.  If  the  first  cut  is  not  satisfactory,  a  completely  new 
one  should  be  made.  There  should  be  no  paring  of  the  cut,  as 
this  will  make  an  irregular  or  wavy  surface  and  prevent  the 
cuttings  coming  together  closely  in  all  parts. 

"The  tongues  are  made  with  a  slow,  sliding  motion  of  the 
knife.  They  are  commenced  slightly  above  one-third  of  the 
distance  from  the  sharp  end  of  the  bevel  and  cut  down  until 
the  tongue  is  just  a  trifle  more  than  one-third  the  length  of 
the  cut  surface.  The  tongue  should  be  cut,  not  split.  The 
knife  should  not  follow  the  grain  of  the  wood,  but  should  be 
slanted  in  such  a  way  that  the  tongue  will  be  about  one-half 
as  thick  as  it  would  be  if  made  by  splitting.  Before  withdraw- 
1  Bioletti,  Frederic  T.  Calif.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  180:  108-112. 


PROPAGATION  53 

ing  the  knife  it  is  bent  over  in  order  to  open  out  the  tongue. 
This  very  much  facilitates  the  placing  together  of  stock  and 
scion. 

"The  stock  and  scion  are  now  placed  together  and,  if  every- 
thing has  been  done  properly,  there  will  be  no  cut  surface 
visible  and  the  extremity  of  neither  stock  nor  scion  will  pro- 
ject over  the  cut  surface  of  the  other.  It  is  much  better  that 
the  points  should  not  quite  reach  the  bottom  of  the  cut  surface 
than  that  they  should  overlap,  as  the  union  will  be  more  com- 
plete and  the  scions  will  be  less  liable  to  throw  out  roots.  If 
the  points  do  overlap,  the  overlapping  portion  should  be  cut 
off,  as  in  the  Champin  grafts. 

"  A  skillful  grafter,  by  following  the  above-described  method, 
will  make  grafts  most  of  which  will  hold  together  very  firmly. 
Many  of  them  would  be  displaced,  however,  in  subsequent 
operations,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  tie  them.  This  is  done 
with  raffia  or  waxed  string.  The  only  object  of  the  tying  is 
to  keep  the  stock  and  scion  together  until  they  unite  by  the 
growth  of  their  own  tissues,  so  that  the  less  material  used  the 
better,  provided  this  object  is  attained.  For  the  formation 
of  healing  tissue  air  is  necessary,  so  that  clay,  wax,  tinfoil 
or  anything  that  would  exclude  the  air  should  not  be  used. 
The  tying  material  is  passed  twice  around  the  point  of  the 
scion  to  hold  it  down  firmly,  and  then  with  one  or  two  wide 
spirals  it  is  carried  to  the  point  of  the  stock,  which  is  fastened 
firmly  with  two  more  turns  and  the  end  of  the  string  passed 
under  the  last  turn.  The  less  string  is  used  the  more  easily 
it  is  removed  later  in  the  nursery. 

"Untreated  raffia  should  be  used  for  late  grafts  which  are 
to  be  planted  directly  out  in  the  nursery,  but  if  the  grafts 
are  to  be  placed  first  in  a  call  using  bed  it  is  best  to  bluestone 
the  raffia  in  order  to  prevent  rotting  before  the  grafts  are 
planted.  This  is  done  by  steeping  the  bundles  of  raffia  in  a 
three  per  cent  solution  of  bluestone  for  a  few  hours  and  then 


54          MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

hanging  them  up  to  dry.  Before  using,  the  raffia  should  be 
washed  quickly  in  a  stream  of  water  in  order  to  remove  the 
bluestone  which  has  crystallized  on  the  outside  and  which  might 
corrode  the  graft. 

"Some  grafters  prefer  waxed  string  for  grafting.  The 
string  should  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  graft,  but  thin 
enough  to  be  broken  by  hand.  No.  18  knitting  cotton  is  a 
good  size.  It  is  waxed  by  soaking  the  balls  in  melted  grafting 
wax  for  several  hours.  The  string  will  absorb  the  wax,  and 
may  then  be  placed  on  one  side  until  needed.  A  good  wax 
for  this  purpose  is  made  by  melting  together  one  part  of  tal- 
low, two  parts  of  beeswax,  and  three  parts  of  rosin. " 

Wire  grafting. 

"The  merits  claimed  for  this  method  are  that  it  is  more 
rapid,  requires  less  skill,  and  does  away  with  the  troublesome 
tying  and  still  more  troublesome  removal  of  the  tying  material. 
Practiced  grafters  can  obtain  as  large  a  percentage  of  No.  1 
unions  by  this  method  as  by  any  other,  and  unpracticed  graft- 
ers can  do  almost  as  well  as  practiced.  Another  advantage 
of  the  method  is  that  the  scions  have  less  tendency  to  make 
roots  than  with  the  tongue  graft. 

"It  consists  essentially  of  the  use  of  a  short  piece  of  gal- 
vanized iron  wire  inserted  in  the  pith  of  stock  and  scion  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  them  together,  thus  replacing  both 
tongues  and  raffia.  It  has  been  objected  that  the  iron  would 
have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  tissues  of  the  graft,  corroding 
them,  or  causing  them  to  decay.  There  seems,  however,  no 
reason  to  expect  any  such  result,  and  vines  grafted  in  this  way 
have  been  bearing  for  years  without  showing  any  such  effect. 

"  The  preparation  and  grading  of  stocks  and  scions  are  exactly 
the  same  for  this  method  as  for  the  tongue  graft. 

"Stock  and  scion  are  cut  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  A  piece 
of  galvanized  iron  wire  two  inches  long  is  then  pushed  one  inch 


PROPAGATION  55 

into  the  firmest  pith.  This  will  usually  be  the  pith  of  the  stock, 
but  it  will  depend  on  the  varieties  being  grafted.  The  scion 
is  then  pushed  on  to  the  wire  and  pressed  down  until  it  is  in 
contact  with  the  stock.  If  the  cuttings  have  large  pith  it  is 
better  to  use  two  pieces  of  wire,  one  placed  in  the  stock  first 
and  the  other  in  the  scion. 

"The  length  of  wire  to  use  will  vary  with  the  size  and  firm- 
ness of  the  cuttings,  but  2  inches  will  usually  be  found  most 
satisfactory.  Wire  of  No.  17  gauge  is  the  most  useful  size/' 

Making  bundles. 

"  If  the  grafts  are  to  be  planted  out  directly  in  the  nursery, 
they  may  be  simply  laid  in  boxes  or  trays,  covered  with  damp 
sacks,  and  carried  out  to  be  planted  as  soon  as  made.  It  is 
usually  better,  however,  to  place  them  for  several  weeks  in  a 
callusing  bed  before  planting.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  for 
convenience  of  handling  to  tie  them  up  into  bundles.  No 
more  than  twenty  grafts  should  be  placed  in  a  bundle,  and 
ten  is  better.  If  the  bundles  are  too  large  there  is  danger  of 
the  grafts  in  the  middle  becoming  moldy  or  dry. 

"A  stand  is  very  convenient.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  board 
12  inches,  on  one  end  of  which  is  nailed  a  cleat  6  inches  by  4 
inches  and  under  the  other  end  a  support  of  the  same  size. 
Two  4-inch  wire  nails  are  driven  through  the  board  from  below, 
4  inches  apart  and  5  inches  from  the  cleat.  Two  other  4-inch 
nails  are  driven  similarly  at  li  inches  from  the  other  end.  The 
grafts  are  laid  on  this  stand  with  the  scions  resting  against 
the  cleat,  and  are  then  tied  with  the  two  pieces  of  bluestoned 
raffia  that  have  previously  been  placed  dbove  each  pair  of 
nails.  This  arrangement  insures  all  the  scions,  and  therefore 
the  unions,  being  at  the  same  level,  and  puts  both  ties  below 
the  union  where  they  will  not  strain  the  graft.  The  tying  is 
more  expeditious  and  less  liable  to  disturb  the  unions  than  if 
the  bundles  are  made  without  a  guide. 


56          MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

"  A  skillful  grafter  will  make  about  one  hundred  tongue  grafts 
on  cuttings  per  hour,  or  from  sixty-five  to  seventy-five  per  hour 
if  he  does  the  tying  as  well.  Wire  grafts  can  be  made  at  the 
rate  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  per  hour,  and  by  proper 
division  of  labor  where  several  grafters  are  employed  this 
number  can  be  easily  exceeded.  These  estimates  do  not  in- 
clude the  preparation  and  grading  of  the  cuttings." 

Grafting  rooted  cuttings. 

The  cion  may  be  grafted  on  a  stock  rooted  in  the  nursery 
the  previous  season,  much  the  same  methods  being  used  as 
with  cuttings.  This  method  is  employed  to  utilize  cuttings 
too  small  to  graft,  the  added  sizes  attained  in  the  nursery  mak- 
ing them  large  enough,  and  in  grafting  on  stocks  which  root 
with  difficulty,  thus  saving  the  making  of  grafts  which  never 
grow.  The  stocks,  in  this  method,  are  cut  so  that  the  cions 
may  be  inserted  as  the  original  cutting  and  not  as  the  new 
growth.  The  roots,  for  convenience  in  handling,  are  cut  back 
to  an  inch  or  thereabouts  in  length. 

The  callusing  bed. 

If  bench  grafts  are  planted  at  once  in  the  nursery,  most  of 
them  fail.  They  are,  therefore,  stratified  in  a  callusing  bed 
where  moisture  and  temperature  can  be  controlled.  Bio- 
letti  describes  a  callusing  bed  and  its  use  as  follows : 1 

"This  callusing  bed  is  usually  a  pile  of  clean  sand  placed 
on  the  south  side  of  a  wall  or  building  and  surrounded  by  a 
board  partition  where  there  is  no  possibility  of  its  becoming 
too  wet  by  the  flow  of  water  from  a  higher  level  or  from  an 
overhanging  roof.  It  should  be  protected,  if  necessary,  by 
a  surrounding  ditch.  It  should  be  furnished  with  a  removable 
cover  of  canvas  or  boards  to  protect  it  from  rain  and  to  enable 
the  temperature  to  be  controlled  by  the  admission  or  exclusion 
1  Bioletti,  Frederic  T.  Calif.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  180:  113-118. 


PROPAGATION  57 

of  the  sun's  rays.  A  water-proof  wagon-cover,  black  on  one 
side  and  white  on  the  other,  is  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

"  The  bottom  of  the  callusing  bed  is  first  covered  with  2  or 
3  inches  of  sand.  The  bundles  of  grafts  are  then  placed  in 
a  row  along  one  end  of  the  bed,  and  sand  well  filled  in  around 
them.  The  bundles  should  be  placed  in  a  slightly  inclined 
position  with  the  scions  uppermost,  and  the  sand  should  be 
dry  enough  so  that  it  sifts  in  between  the  grafts  in  the  bundle. 
The  bundles  of  grafts  are  then  covered  up  completely  with 
sand,  leaving  it  at  least  2  inches  deep  above  the  top  of  the  scion. 
Another  row  is  then  placed  in  the  same  manner  until  the  bed 
is  full.  Finally  a  layer  of  2  or  3  inches  of  moss  or  straw  is 
placed  over  all. 

"In  the  callusing  bed  we  should  endeavor  to  hasten  and 
perfect  the  union  of  stock  and  scion  as  much  as  possible  while 
delaying  the  starting  of  the  buds  and  the  emission  of  the  roots. 
The  latter  processes  require  more  moisture  than  the  formation 
of  healing  tissue,  therefore  the  sand  should  be  kept  compara- 
tively dry.  Between  5  and  10  per  cent  of  water  in  the  sand 
is  sufficient.  The  purer  the  sand  the  less  water  is  necessary. 
There  should  be  a  little  more  moisture  present  than  in  the  sand 
used  for  keeping  the  cuttings  over  winter.  Too  much  moisture 
will  stimulate  the  emission  of  roots  and  starting  of  buds  with- 
out aiding  the  callus  formation. 

"All  the  vital  processes  progress  more  rapidly  when  the 
cuttings  are  kept  warm.  To  delay  them,  therefore,  we  keep 
the  sand  cool,  and  to  hasten  them  we  make  it  warm.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  season  and  up  to  the  middle  of  March  we  keep 
the  sand  cool.  This  is  done  by  keeping  tha  bed  covered  during 
the  day  when  the  sun  is  shining,  and  uncovering  occasionally 
at  night  when  there  is  no  fear  of  rain.  If  the  black-and-white 
wagon-cover  is  used,  the  white  side  should  be  placed  outward 
to  reflect  the  heat.  The  temperature  should  be  kept  about 
60°  F.  or  lower. 


58          MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

"About  the  middle  of  March  the  temperature  of  the  bed 
should  be  raised.  This  is  done  by  removing  the  cover  during 
warm  days  and  carefully  covering  at  night.  If  necessary  the 
layer  of  moss  or  straw  should  be  removed  on  sunny  days  and 
then  replaced.  The  temperature  of  the  sand  at  the  level  of 
the  unions  should  be  about  75°  F.  during  this  period.  If  the 
temperature  rises  higher  than  this,  there  will  be  a  more  abun- 
dant production  of  callus,  but  it  will  be  soft,  easily  injured, 
and  liable  to  decay. 

"  At  the  end  of  four  weeks  after  warming  the  bed,  the  union 
should  be  well  cemented.  The  callus  should  not  only  have 
formed  copiously  around  the  whole  circumference  of  the  wound, 
but  it  should  have  acquired  a  certain  amount  of  toughness  due 
to  the  formation  of  fibrous  tissue.  It  should  require  a  pull 
of  several  pounds  to  break  the  callus  and  separate  stock  and 
scion.  When  the  callus  has  acquired  this  quality  the  grafts 
are  in  condition  to  be  planted  in  the  nursery,  and  may  be 
handled  without  danger.  If  taken  from  the  bed  while  the 
callus  is  still  soft,  many  unions  will  be  injured  and  the  grafts 
will  fail,  or  unite  only  on  one  side. 

"If  left  as  long  as  this  in  the  callusing  bed  most  of  the  scion 
buds  will  have  started  and  formed  white  shoots.  These 
shoots,  however,  should  not  be  more  than  k  to  1  inch  long. 
If  they  are  longer  the  bed  has  been  kept  too  wet  or  too  warm. 
Roots  will  also  have  started  from  the  stock,  but  these  also 
should  not  be  over  \  inch  long.  The  grafts  should  be  handled 
as  carefully  as  is  practicable,  but  there  is  no  objection  to  break- 
ing off  any  scion  shoots  or  stock  roots  which  have  grown  too 
long.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  save  them,  and  new  ones 
will  start  after  the  grafts  are  planted,  and  make  a  perfectly 
satisfactory  growth." 

Care  in  the  nursery. 

The  grafts  are  planted  in  the  nursery,  and  are  given  much 
the  same  care  recommended  for  cuttings.  They  may  be  set 


PROPAGATION  59 

in  trenches  made  with  plow  or  spade ;  or  they  may  be  planted 
in  very  shallow  trenches  with  a  dibble.  After  planting,  the 
grafts  are  covered  with  an  inch  or  two  of  soil,  thus  forming  a 
wide  ridge  in  the  nursery  row  with  the  union  of  the  grafts  at 
the  original  level  of  the  soil.  Cultivation  should  begin  at 
once  and  be  frequent  enough  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a 
crust,  in  order  that  the  young  shoots  may  not  have  difficulty 
in  forcing  their  way  through  the  soil.  Roots  start  on  the 
cions  sooner  than  on  the  stock,  the  soil  being  warmer  at  the 
surface,  and  help  sustain  the  cions  until  the  stocks  are  well 
rooted,  at  which  time  all  roots  started  on  the  cion  are  removed, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  tying  material  is  cut  if  it  has  not  rotted. 
Suckers  are  removed  as  soon  as  they  show  above  ground.  The 
grafts  are  dug  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall  and  the  young  vines 
become  dormant,  after  which  they  are  sorted  in  three  lots, 
according  to  size  of  top  and  root,  and  heeled-in  in  a  cool  moist 
place  until  they  are  to  be  planted. 

Nursery  versus  home-grown  vines. 

The  verdict  of  all  vineyardists  is  that  it  is  better  to  buy 
nursery-grown  vines  than  to  attempt  to  grow  them.  The 
high  quality  of  the  vines  which  can  be  purchased  and  the 
reasonable  purchase  price  make  it  hardly  worth  while  to  try 
home-grown  vines,  especially  since  considerable  investment, 
experience  and  skill  are  required  to  grow  good  vines. 

"PEDIGREED"  GRAPE  VINES 

Many  viticulturists,  in  common  with  orchardists,  believe 
that  their  plants  should  be  propagated  only  from  parents 
which  have  good  characters,  that  is,  are  vigorous,  healthy, 
productive,  and  bear  fruit  of  large  size,  perfect  form, 
good  color  and  good  quality.  They  believe,  in  short,  that 
varieties  can  be  improved  by  bud  selection.  There  is,  however, 


60  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

but  little  in  either  theory  or  fact  to  substantiate  the  belief 
of  -those  who  say  that  varieties  once  established  can  be  im- 
proved ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  that  they  degenerate.  Present 
knowledge  and  experience  indicate  that  heredity  is  all  but 
complete  in  varieties  propagated  from  parts  of  plants.  The 
multitude  of  grapes  in  any  variety,  all  from  one  seed,  are  mor- 
phologically one  individual.  A  few  kinds  of  grapes  go  back  to 
Christ's  time,  and  these  seem  to  agree  almost  perfectly  with 
the  descriptions  of  them  made  by  Roman  writers  2000  years 
ago.  How,  then,  can  the  differences  between  vines  of  a  variety 
in  every  vineyard  in  the  land  be  explained  ? 

Ample  explanation  is  found  in  "nurture"  to  account  for  the 
variation  in  vines  without  involving  a  change  in  "Nature." 
Soil,  sunlight,  moisture,  insects,  disease,  plant-food,  and  the 
stock  in  the  case  of  grafted  vines,  give  every  vine  a  distinct 
environment  and  hence  a  distinct  individuality  of  its  own. 
Peculiarities  in  a  vine  appear  and  disappear  with  the  individual. 
A  variety  can  be  changed  temporarily  by  its  environment,  but 
remove  the  incidental  forces  and  it  snaps  back  into  its  same  old 
self. 

Heredity  is  not  quite  complete  in  the  grape,  however;  for, 
now  and  then,  sports  or  mutations  appear  which  are  permanent 
and,  if  sufficiently  different,  become  a  strain  of  the  parent 
variety  or  possibly  a  new  variety.  There  are  several  such 
sports  of  the  Concord  under  cultivation.  The  grape-grower 
can  tell  these  sports  from  the  modifications  brought  about  by 
environment  only  by  propagation.  If  a  variation  is  transmitted 
unchanged  through  successive  generations  of  the  grape,  as 
occasionally  happens,  it  may  be  looked  on  as  a  new  form. 
"Pedigreed"  vines,  then,  should  be  subject  to  a  test  of  several 
generations  in  an  experimental  vineyard  before  the  grape- 
grower  pays  the  price  demanded  for  the  supposed  improvement. 


CHAPTER  IV 
STOCKS  AND   RESISTANT  VINES 

PHYLLOXERA,  a  tiny  root-louse,  made  its  appearance  in 
France  in  1861  and  began  multiplying  with  a  fury  unparalleled 
in  the  insect  world.  By  1874,  the  pest  had  become  so  wide- 
spread in  Europe  that  it  threatened  the  very  existence  of  the 
great  vineyard  industry  of  that  continent.  All  attempts  to 
bring  the  pest  under  control  failed,  although  the  French  gov- 
ernment offered  a  reward  of  300,000  francs  for  a  satisfactory 
remedy.  Numerous  methods  of  treating  the  soil  to  check 
the  ravages  of  the  insect  were  tried,  also,  but  none  was  effica- 
cious. Finally,  it  dawned  on  European  vineyardists  that 
phylloxera  is  not  a  scourge  in  America,  its  habitat,  and  that 
European  vineyards  might  be  saved  by  grafting  Vinifera  vines 
on  the  roots  of  immune  American  grapes.  At  once  the  recon- 
struction of  vineyards  in  Europe  was  begun  by  grafting  the 
grapes  on  phylloxera-resistant  roots.  Meanwhile,  consterna- 
tion spread  to  California  when  it  was  discovered  that  phylloxera 
was  running  riot  in  some  of  the  vineyards  of  the  Pacific  slope ; 
however,  with  the  knowledge  derived  from  viticulturists  in 
Europe,  they  too  began  reconstructing  vineyards  on  immune 
roots,  without  the  same  success  as  the  Europeans,  it  is  true, 
but  with  such  measure  of  success  that  it  soon  became  the 
approved  method  of  growing  grapes  in  this  great  region. 

Through  the  use  of  resistant  stocks,  phylloxera  is  now  defied 
in  Vinifera  regions.  Millions  of  American  stocks  are  annually 
struck  at  home,  in  Europe  and  wherever  Vinifera  grapes  are 
grown,  to  be  top-worked  with  varieties  susceptible  to  phylloxera. 
Seldom  has  mastery  over  a  pest  been  so  complete;  but,  to 

61 


62          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

triumph  over  the  tiny  insect,  the  industry  has  had  to  be  revo- 
lutionized. Resistant  stocks,  in  their  turn,  brought  innumer- 
able new  problems,  many  of  which  are  still  unsolved.  Investi- 
gations and  experiences  in  rehabilitating  vineyards  have  been 
carried  on  for  forty  years,  the  results  set  forth  in  books  and 
bulletins  and  yet  there  are  many  problems  to  be  solved.  The 
grape-grower  in  regions  infested  with  phylloxera  is  always 
under  the  necessity  of  taking  advantage  of  the  latest  demonstra- 
tion of  practices  in  the  use  of  resistant  stocks.  These  practices 
are  best  studied  in  the  experiments  of  state  experiment  stations 
and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  in  the 
vineyards  of  leading  grape-growers,  since  even  those  most 
needing  elucidation  can  be  but  briefly  discussed  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

The  wild  vines  of  a  species  are  always  seedlings  and  are 
hence  exceedingly  variable.  The  first  vineyards  of  resistant 
stocks  were  vines  grafted  on  stocks  of  wild  vines,  and  the 
results  were  very  unsatisfactory;  for,  naturally,  there  was 
divergence  in  many  characters  and  especially  in  the  vigor  of  the 
vines.  Also,  there  was  difficulty  in  grafting,  since  some  wild 
vines  are  stout  and  others  slender ;  some  bear  grafts  well,  while 
others  do  not.  It  soon  became  apparent  that  to  succeed, 
varieties  must  be  selected  from  the  different  species  for  vine- 
yard work.  The  great  task  of  the  experimenter  and  grape- 
grower,  therefore,  has  been  to  select  varieties  of  the  several 
species  sufficiently  resistant,  vigorous  and  otherwise  possessed 
of  characters  fitting  them  to  become  good  stocks.  Out  of 
vast  numbers  tested,  a  few  are  now  generally  recognized  as 
best  for  the  several  groups  of  Vinifera  grapes  and  the  several 
distinct  regions,  in  which  these  grapes  are  grown. 

Resistant  species  and  varieties. 

The  reconstruction  of  phylloxera-ridden  vineyards  by  the 
use  of  resistant  stocks  is  possible  only  because  some  species 


STOCKS   AND   RESISTANT    VINES  63 

and  varieties  are,  as  has  been  said,  more  resistant  to  the  root- 
louse  than  others.  All  degrees  of  resistance  exist,  as  would 
be  suspected,  from  immunity  to  great  susceptibility.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  foundation  of  the  art  of  growing  resistant 
vineyards  is  exact  knowledge  of  the  immunities  and  suscepti- 
bilities of  the  many  varieties  and  species  of  grapes.  From  the 
first  use  of  resistant  vines,  experimenters  everywhere  have  set 
themselves  at  work  to  determine  not  only  what  the  most  resist- 
ant vines  are,  but  what  the  causes  and  conditions  of  immunity. 
In  spite  of  a  wealth  of  empirical  discoveries  as  to  what  grapes 
can  best  resist  the  root-louse,  causes  and  most  of  the  conditions 
of  immunity  are  still  little  understood.  Definite,  useful  knowl- 
edge, so  far,  goes  little  further  than  the  establishment  of  lists 
of  species  and  varieties,  the  latter  subject  to  change,  that  are 
most  useful  in  setting  resistant  vineyards. 

Phylloxera  does  little  damage  to  species  of  Vitis  native  to 
the  same  general  region  in  which  the  pest  has  its  habitat,  but 
nevertheless  there  are  some  differences  in  resistance  in  American 
grapes.  Munson,  one  of  the  best  American  authorities  on 
the  resistance  of  species  to  phylloxera,  says : 1  "  Rotundif olia 
is  entirely  immune,  then  Rupestris,  Vulpina,  Cinerea,  Ber- 
landieri,  Champini,  Candicans,  Doaniana,  ^Estivalis  and  Lince- 
cumii  are  so  high  in  resistance  as  to  be  practically  uninjured, 
though  they  may  be  attacked,  while  Labrusca  is  low  in  resist- 
ance and  is  much  weakened  in  clay  soils,  if  infested,  and  Vinif- 
era  is  entirely  non-resistant."  Some  of  these  species  are  hard 
to  propagate  and  difficult  to  suit  in  soil  and  climate  so  that  but 
two  of  them  are  much  used  for  resistant  stocks.  The  two  most 
used  are  Rupestris  and  Vulpina  (Riparia),  of  both  of  which  there 
are  varieties  which  give  satisfaction.  Bioletti,  a  leading  author- 
ity on  resistant  stocks  in  California,  says : 2 

1  Munson,  T.  V.     Foundations  of    American  Grape  Culture,    217. 
1909. 

2  Bioletti,  Frederic  T.     Calif.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  180:  96-97.     1906. 


64  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

"Varieties  of  resistant  stocks  which  will  in  all  probability 
be  used  in  California  are  Rupestris  St.  George  (du  Lot),  Riparia 
X  Rupestris  3306,  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309,  Riparia  Solonis 
1616,  Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202,  Aramon  X  Rupestris  2,  Ri- 
paria gloire,  and  Riparia  grande  glabre.  These  are  all  varieties 
which  have  given  excellent  varieties  for  years  in  Europe,  and 
have  all  been  tested  successfully  in  California.  Among  them 
are  varieties  suitable  for  nearly  all  the  vineyard  soils  of  Cali- 
fornia, with  perhaps  the  exception  of  some  of  the  heavier  clays. 

"The  only  one  of  these  varieties  which  has  been  planted 
extensively  in  California  is  the  Rupestris  St.  George.  There 
can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that  it  will  fail  to  give  satisfaction 
in  many  soils,  and  though  we  may  not  find  something  better 
for  all  our  soils  it  is  probable  that  we  will  repeat  the  experience 
of  Southern  France  and  find  that  in  most  soils  there  is  some 
other  variety  that  gives  better  results.  Without  attempting 
to  describe  these  varieties,  but  to  give  some  idea  of  their  merits 
and  defects  and  of  the  soils  most  suited  to  each,  the  following 
indications  are  given,  based  principally  on  the  opinions  of  L. 
Ravaz  and  Prosper  Gervais,  and  on  a  still  limited  experience 
in  California : 

"  The  Rupestris  St.  George  is  remarkably  vigorous  and  grows 
very  large,  supporting  the  graft  well  even  without  stakes. 
It  roots  easily  and  makes  excellent  unions  with  most  vinifera 
varieties.  It  is  well  suited  to  deep  soils  where  its  roots  can 
penetrate.  Its  defects  are  that  it  is  very  subject  to  root-rot, 
especially  in  moist  soils ;  it  suckers  badly  and  it  suffers  from 
drought  in  shallow  soils.  Its  great  vigor  produces  coulure  with 
some  varieties  and  often  necessitates  long  pruning. 

"In  moist  or  wet  soils  1616  or  3306  had  given  better  results 
in  France  and  gives  indications  of  doing  equally  well  here.  In 
drier  soils  3309  will  probably  be  found  preferable. 

"Aramon  Rupestris  No.  2  is  suited  to  the  same  soils  as 
Rupestris  St.  George,  and  does  particularly  well  in  extremely 


STOCKS   AND   RESISTANT    VINES  65 

gravelly  soils.  It  has  some  of  the  defects  of  the  St.  George 
and  is  moreover  more  difficult  to  graft,  and  its  only  advantage 
in  California  is  that  it  is  rather  less  susceptible  to  root-rot. 

"There  are  no  better  resistant  stocks  than  Riparia  gloire  and 
Riparia  grande  glabre,  wherever  they  are  put  in  soils  that  suit 
them.  They  do  well,  however,  only  in  deep,  rich,  alluvial 
soils  which  are  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  Their  grafts  are 
the  most  productive  of  all,  and  ripen  their  grapes  from  one  to 
two  wreeks  earlier  than  the  grafts  on  St.  George.  Their  prin- 
cipal defect  is  that  they  are  very  particular  as  to  the  soil,  and 
they  never  grow  quite  as  large  as  the  cion.  The  gloire  is  the 
most  vigorous,  and  the  difference  of  diameter  is  less  with  this 
variety  than  with  any  other  Riparia. 

"The  Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202  is  extremely  vigorous, 
roots  and  grafts  easily,  and  is  wrell  adapted  to  rich,  sandy  and 
moist  soils.  In  drier  and  poorer  soils  its  resistance  is  perhaps 
not  sufficient. 

"The  most  promising  varieties  for  general  use  at  present 
seem  to  be  the  two  hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Rupestris,  3306 
and  3309.  They  have  great  resistance  to  the  phylloxera, 
root  and  graft  almost  as  easily  as  St.  George,  and  are  quite 
sufficiently  vigorous  to  support  any  variety  of  vinifera.  The 
former  is  more  suited  to  the  moister  soils  and  wherever  there 
is  danger  of  root-rot,  and  the  latter  to  the  drier  soils.  In  gen- 
eral, they  are  suited  to  a  larger  variety  of  soils  and  condition 
than  perhaps  any  other  varieties. 

"  Riparia  gloire  should  be  planted  only  on  rich,  deep  alluvial 
soil  containing  an  abundance  of  plant  food  and  humus,  what 
would  be  called  good  garden  land,  such  as  river  bank  soil  not 
liable  to  overflow. 

"  In  most  other  soils  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3306  is  to  be  recom- 
mended, except  those  that  are  rather  dry,  where  3309  is  to  be 
preferred,  or  those  which  are  very  wet,  where  Solonis  X  Riparia 
1616  is  surer  to  give  good  results." 


66          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

The  value  of  a  species  or  variety  for  a  resistant  stock  may  be 
judged  somewhat  by  the  visible  effect  of  the  phylloxera  on  the 
roots  of  the  vines.  On  susceptible  species,  the  punctures  of 
the  insects  rapidly  produce  swellings  wrhich  vary  in  size  and 
number  in  accordance  with  resistance  of  the  species.  Techni- 
cally, the  first  swelling  on  the  young  tender  rootlets  of  the  vine 
is  called  a  nodosity.  The  presence  of  a  few  nodosities  on  the 
root  system  does  not  indicate  that  a  vine  is  not  a  valuable 
resistant  stock.  When  the  nodosity  begins  to  decay  and 
becomes  of  a  cancerous  nature,  it  is  called  a  tuberosity.  These 
tuberosities  decay  more  or  less  rapidly  and  deeply,  and  when 
they  rot  deeply  cause  enfeeblement  or  death  to  the  vine.  Thus, 
on  Vinifera  varieties  the  tuberosities  are  several  times  larger 
and  decay  sets  in  much  more  quickly  than  on  American  species 
which  show  these  tuberosities.  Ratings  as  to  resistance  of 
species  are  usually  made  from  the  size  and  number  of  the 
tuberosities,  though  when  these  are  found  producing  a  scab-like 
wound  which  scales  off,  there  may  be  high  resisting  power. 

In  order  to  convey  with  some  degree  of  definiteness  the  power 
of  resistance  to  phylloxera,  an  arbitrary  scale  has  been  agreed 
on  by  viticulturists.  In  this  scale,  maximum  resistance  is 
indicated  by  20  and  minimum  by  0.  Thus,  the  resisting  power 
of  a  good  Vulpina  is  put  as  19.5  and  that  of  a  poor  Vinifera 
variety  as  0. 

ADAPTATIONS  OF  RESISTANT  STOCKS  TO  SOILS  AND  CLIMATES 

Resistance,  of  course,  counts  for  naught  in  a  stock  which 
comes  from  a  species  unsuited  to  the  soil  and  climate  or  other 
circumstances  of  the  locality  in  which  the  vineyard  is  to  be 
planted.  The  several  species  used  for  stocks  differ  widely 
in  the  requirements  affecting  growth  so  that  the  grower  must 
make  certain  that  the  resistant  stock  he  selects  will  find  con- 
genial surroundings.  Stocks  in  congenial  circumstances  are 


STOCKS   AND   RESISTANT    VINES  67 

frequently  more  resistant  than  others  inherently  more  resistant, 
but  which  are  not  otherwise  adapted  to  the  particular  condi- 
tions of  the  vineyard.  Species  of  grapes  vary  greatly  in  their 
root  systems,  some  having  thick,  others  slender  roots;  the 
roots  of  some  are  soft,  of  others  hard ;  some  have  roots  going 
down  deeply,  others  are  almost  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Manifestly  these  various  root-forms  are  but  adaptations  to 
loose  and  heavy,  dry  and  moist,  deep  and  shallow  soils,  or  to 
some  circumstance  of  climate.  A  vine  bruised  by  adversity 
is  in  no  condition  to  withstand  phylloxera.  Therefore,  since 
the  adaptability  of  a  variety  to  a  soil  or  climate  may  be  changed 
by  the  stock,  the  adaptations  of  stocks  to  soils  and  climates 
must  have  attention. 

Affinity  of  stock  and  cion. 

Different  varieties  of  grapes  do  not  behave  alike  on  the  same 
stocks,  and  different  stocks  may  affect  varieties  differently. 
Even  when  the  kinship  is  close,  some  grapes  resist  all  the 
appliances  of  art  to  make  a  successful  union ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  quite  distinct  species  often  seem  foreordained  to 
be  (joined.  For  example,  Rotundifolia,  which  has  the  highest 
resistance  to  phylloxera  of  any  species,  is  useless  as  a  stock 
because  it  is  impossible  to  graft  any  other  grape  on  it,  while 
Vulpina  and  Rupestris  unite  readily  with  varieties  of  Vinifera, 
the  slight  decrease  in  the  vigor  of  the  grafted  vines  serving 
oftentimes  to  increase  fruitfulness.  Something  more  is  neces- 
sary, then,  than  botanical  kinship.  Just  what  is  necessary, 
no  one  knows,  beyond  :  that  there  must  be  conformity  in  habit 
between  stock  and  cion ;  that  the  two  must  start  in  growth  at 
approximately  the  same  time;  and  that  the  tissues  must  be 
sufficiently  alike  that  there  be  proper  contact  in  the  union. 
Yet  these  facts  do  not  sufficiently  explain  all  of  the  affinities 
and  antipathies  which  species  and  varieties  of  grapes  show  to 
each  other.  Unfortunately,  the  grape-grower  has  had  but 


68          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

little  to  guide  him  in  selecting  stocks  and  has  had  to  learn  by 
making  repeated  trials. 

PROPER  PLANTING  OF  GRAFTED  VINES 

Europeans  and  Calif ornians  long  ago  learned  that  failures 
with  grafted  vines  often  came  from  setting  the  vines  too  deep 
in  the  soil,  the  result  being  that  the  cions  struck  root  and 
became  independent,  whereupon  the  stock  dies  or  becomes  so 
moribund  that  the  beneficial  effects  are  lost.  There  are  grape- 
growers  who  argue  that  it  is  beneficial  to  the  vine  to  have  roots 
from  both  stock  and  cion,  but  experience  and  experiments  very 
generally  teach  the  contrary,  it  being  found  that  in  most  grafts 
the  cion  roots  grow  more  vigorously  than  stock  roots  and 
eventually  starve  out  the  latter.  The  disastrous  effects  of 
cion-rooting  are  often  to  be  found,  also,  when  grafting  has  been 
done  on  old  vines  in  the  vineyard ;  and,  again,  when  the  graft 
is  too  close  to  the  root  system. 

Another  cause  of  failure  is  that  different  stocks  require  that 
the  vineyard  soil  be  treated  differently,  especially  at  planting 
time.  Vulpina  stocks  require  that  the  soil  be  much  more 
deeply  plowed  than  for  Viniferas  on  their  own  roots,  since 
Vulpinas  are  deep-rooted  and  are  exacting  in  the  depth  of 
root-run  required.  Those  who  have  had  most  experience  with 
resistant  stocks  maintain  that  all  American  grapes  require 
rather  deeper  plowing  than  European  grapes  on  their  own  roots. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  STOCKS  ON  THE  CION 

Up  to  the  present,  the  growing  of  grafted  grapes  has  been 
carried  on  with  little  thought  of  the  mutual  influence  of  stock 
and  cion ;  grapes  have  been  grafted  only  to  secure  vines  resistant 
to  phylloxera.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  stock  and  cion 
react  on  one  another,  and  that  any  variety  of  grapes  is  influenced 


STOCKS   AND   RESISTANT    VINES  69 

for  better  or  worse  in  characters  of  vine  and  fruit  by  the  stock 
upon  which  it  is  grafted.  A  plant  is  a  delicate  mechanism, 
easily  thrown  out  of  gear,  and  all  plants,  the  grape  not  the 
least,  are  more  or  less  changed  in  the  adjustments  of  stock  and 
cion.  One  could  fill  a  large  volume  on  the  supposed  reciprocal 
influence  of  stock  and  cion  in  fruits.  Space  suffices,  here, 
however,  to  mention  only  those  proved  and  those  having  to  do 
with  the  influence  of  the  stock  on  the  cion  when  the  grape  is 
grafted. 

Influence  of  stocks  on  European  grapes  summarized. 

Common  experience  in  Europe  and  California  indicates  that 
varieties  of  Vinifera  grapes  grafted  on  resistant  stocks  which 
are  perfectly  adapted  to  soil  and  climate  produce  not  only 
larger  crops  but  sweeter  or  sourer  grapes ;  that  the  crop  ripens 
earlier  or  later ;  that  the  vine  is  often  more  vigorous ;  and  that 
there  are  some  minor  differences  depending  on  the  stock  used. 
Winemakers  assert  that  the  character  of  their  product  may  be 
affected  for  better  or  worse  by  the  stock.  Often  vines  are  so 
improved  by  grafting  that  the  extra  expense  of  the  operation 
and  of  the  stock  is  paid  for;  although,  to  be  sure,  about  as 
often  the  effects  are  deleterious.  The  successes  and  failures  of 
vineyards  on  resistant  stocks  make  plain  that  the  vine-grower 
must  study  the  many  problems  which  stocks  present  and  exer- 
cise utmost  intelligence  in  the  selection  of  the  proper  stock. 

Influence  of  stocks  on  American  grapes. 

No  doubt  American  species  of  grapes  may  be  as  profoundly 
modified  by  stocks  as  the  European  specfes,  but  there  is  but 
little  evidence  on  this  phase  of  grape-growing  to  be  drawn  from 
the  experience  of  vineyardists.  One  rather  conclusive  experi- 
ment, however,  shows  that  American  grapes  may  be  improved 
by  growing  them  on  stocks  which  give  them  better  adaptations 
to  their  environment.  The  experiment  was  tried  in  the  Chau- 


70          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

tauqua  grape-belt  in  western  New  York  by  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  The  test  was  carried  on 
for  eleven  years,  during  which  time  many  interesting  possibilities 
in  grafting  grapes  in  this  region  came  to  light.  It  was  proved 
that  the  stock  materially  affects  the  vigor  and  productiveness 
of  the  vine  and  the  quality  of  the  grapes.  The  following  brief 
account  is  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  355  of  the  New  York 
Station : 

In  this  experiment  a  number  of  varieties  were  grafted  on  St. 
George,  Riparia  Gloire  and  Clevener  stocks,  and  a  fourth 
group  on  their  own  roots.  The  varieties  grafted  were  :  Agawam, 
Barry,  Brighton,  Brilliant,  Campbell  Early,  Catawba,  Con- 
cord, Delaware,  Goff,  Herbert,  lona,  Jefferson,  Lindley,  Mills, 
Niagara,  Regal,  Vergennes,  Winchell  and  Worden.  The 
planting  plan  and  all  of  the  vineyard  operations  were  those 
common  in  commercial  vineyards.  \ 

Yearly  accounts  of  the  vineyard  show  that  the  vines  passed 
through  many  vicissitudes.  The  experiment  was  started  in 
1902  when  St.  George  and  Riparia  Gloire  stocks  from  Cali- 
fornia were  set  and  grafted  in  the  field.  Many  of  these  died 
the  first  year.  The  winter  of  1903-04  was  unusually  severe,  and 
many  more  vines  were  either  killed  or  so  severely  injured  that 
they  died  during  the  next  two  years.  The  vines  on  St.  George, 
a  very  deep-rooting  grape,  withstood  the  cold  best.  Fidia, 
the  grape  root-worm,  was  found  in  the  vineyards  early  in  the 
life  of  the  vines  and  did  much  damage  in  some  years.  In  the 
years  of  1907  and  1909  the  crops  were  ruined  by  hail. 

But  despite  these  serious  setbacks  it  was  evident  throughout 
the  experiment  that  the  grafted  grapes  made  better  vines  and 
were  more  productive  than  those  on  their  own  roots.  As  an 
example  of  the  differences  in  yield,  a  summary  of  the  data  for 
1911  may  be  given.  In  this  year,  an  average  of  all  the  varieties 
on  own  roots  yielded  at  the  rate  of  4.39  tons  to  the  acre ;  on 
St.  George,  5.36  tons;  on  Gloire,  5.32  tons;  on  Clevener,  5.62 


STOCKS   AND   RESISTANT    VINES  71 

tons.  The  crops  on  the  grafted  vines  were  increased  through 
the  setting  of  more  bunches  and  the  development  of  larger 
bunches  and  berries. 

The  grapes  on  the  vines  grafted  on  Gloire  and  Clevener 
ripened  a  few  days  earlier  than  those  on  their  own  roots,  while 
with  St.  George  a  few  varieties  were  retarded  in  ripening. 
Changing  the  time  of  maturity  may  be  very  important  in  grape 
regions  where  there  is  danger  of  early  frost  to  late-ripening 
sorts,  and  where  it  is  often  desirable  to  retard  the  harvest  time 
of  early  grapes. 

In  the  behavior  of  the  vines,  the  results  correspond  closely 
with  those  given  for  yields.  In  the  growth  ratings  of  varieties 
on  different  stocks,  the  varieties  on  their  own  roots  were  rated 
in  vigor  at  40;  on  St.  George,  at  63.2;  on  Gloire,  at  65.2;  on 
Clevener,  at  67.9.  There  is  no  way  of  deciding  how  much 
the  thrift  of  the  vines  depends  on  adaptability  to  soil,  and  how 
much  on  other  factors.  Since  all  of  the  varieties  were  more 
productive  and  vigorous  on  grafted  vines  than  on  their  own  roots 
it  may  be  said  that  a  high  degree  of  congeniality  exists  between 
the  stocks  and  varieties  under  test. 

The  experiment  suggests  that  it  would  be  profitable  to  grow 
fancy  grapes  of  American  species  on  grafted  vines,  and  that 
it  is  well  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  main-crop  grapes 
can  be  grafted  profitably.  In  the  general  tuning-up  of  agri- 
culture now  in  progress,  it  may  be  expected  that  soon  Ameri- 
can as  well  as  European  varieties  of  grapes  will  be  grown  under 
some  conditions  and  for  some  purposes  on  roots  other  than 
their  own. 

DIRECT  PRODUCERS 

Attempts  innumerable  have  been  and  are  still  being  made  to 
secure,  by  hybridizing  V.  vinifera  and  American  species  of 
grapes,  varieties  that  will  resist  phylloxera,  the  mildew  and 
black-rot.  The  grapes  of  this  continent  are  relatively  immune 


72          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

to  all  of  these  troubles,  and  if  hybrids  could  be  obtained  to 
produce  directly,  without  grafting,  grapes  with  the  good  qualities 
of  the  Viniferas  —  in  short,  European  grapes  on  American 
vines  —  the  cultivated  grape  flora  of  the  whole  world  might 
be  changed.  So  far,  a  "direct  producer"  that  is  wholly  satis- 
factory in  either  Europe  or  California  has  not  been  found  for 
the  wine  or  raisin  industries,  although  a  number  of  varieties 
are  rated  as  very  good  table  grapes,  and  a  few  are  used  in  wine- 
making.  The  best  of  the  direct  producers  are  Lenoir,  Taylor, 
Noah,  Norton's  Virginia,  Autuchon,  Othello,  Catawba,  and 
Delaware. 


PLATE  V.  —  Vinifera  grapes  grown  out  of  doors  in  New  York. 
Top,  Malvasia ;  bottom,  Chasselas  Golden. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT 

A  VINEYARD  is  more  artificial  than  other  plantations  of  fruits, 
since  the  vine  requires  greater  discipline  under  cultivation 
than  tree  or  bush.  Yet  greater  art  is  required  only  when  the 
attempt  is  made  to  grow  the  grape  to  perfection,  for  the  vine 
bears  fruit  if  left  to  indulge  in  riotous  growth  wheresoever  it 
can  strike  root.  Vineyard  management,  therefore,  may  repre- 
sent the  consummate  art  of  three  thousand  or  more  years  of 
cultural  subserviency;  or  it  may  be  so  primeval  in  simplicity 
as  to  approach  neglect.  The  grape  is  so  wonderfully  responsive 
to  good  care,  however,  that  no  true  lover  of  fruit  will  profane 
it  with  neglect,  but  will  seek,  rather,  to  give  it  a  favorable 
situation,  its  choice  of  soils  and  such  generous  care  as  will  insure 
strong,  vigorous,  productive  vineyards  of  choicely  good  fruit. 

Grape-growing  is  a  specialists'  business,  for  the  culture  of  the 
grape  is  unlike  that  of  any  other  fruit.  The  essentials  of  vine- 
yard management,  however,  are  easily  learned.  Indeed,  care 
of  the  vine  comes  almost  instinctively ;  for  the  grape  has  been 
cultivated  since  prehistoric  times  and  the  races  of  the  world 
are  so  familiar  with  it  through  sacred  literatures,  myths,  fables, 
stories  and  poetry,  that  its  care  is  prompted  by  natural  impulse. 
The  grape  has  followed  civilized  man  so  closely  from  place  to 
place  through  the  temperate  climates  of  the  world,  that  rules 
and  methods  of  culture  have  been  developed  for  almost  every 
condition  under  which  it  will  grow,  so  that  every  grape-grower 
may  profit  by  the  successes  and  failures  of  the  generations 

73 


74  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

that  preceded  him.  Grape-growing  is  not,  however,  an  art 
wholly  governed  by  rules  of  the  past  to  be  carried  on  by  com- 
mon laborers  who  use  hands  only,  but  is  one  in  which  its  fol- 
lowers may  make  use  of  science  and  may  put  thought,  skill 
and  taste  into  their  work. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  VINEYARD 

Vineyards  are  laid  out  for  the  most  part  after  accepted  pat- 
terns for  each  of  the  great  grape  regions  of  America.  The  vines 
are  always  planted  in  rectangles,  usually  at  a  less  distance 
apart  in  the  rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each  other,  but  some- 
times in  squares.  Pride  in  appearance  and  convenience  in 
vineyard  operations  make  perfect  alignment  imperative.  Many 
varieties  of  grapes,  especially  of  American  species,  are  partially 
self-sterile,  so  that  some  varieties  must  have  others  interplanted 
with  them  for  cross-pollination.  This  is  usually  done  by  set- 
ting alternate  rows  of  the  variety  to  be  pollinated  and  the  cross- 
pollinator.  All  self-fertile  varieties  are  set  in  solid  blocks  be- 
cause of  convenience  in  harvesting. 

Direction  of  rows. 

Some  grape-growers  attach  considerable  importance  to  the 
direction  in  which  rows  run,  holding  either  that  the  full  blaze 
of  the  sun  at  mid-day  is  desirable  for  vine,  soil  and  fruit,  or 
that  it  is  detrimental.  Those  who  desire  to  provide  fullest 
exposure  to  the  sun  plant  rows  east  and  west  when  the  distance 
between  vines  is  less  than  the  distance  between  rows;  north 
and  south  when  vines  are  farther  apart  in  the  row  than  the  rows 
are  from  each  other.  When  shade  seems  more  desirable,  these 
directions  are  reversed.  Most  often,  however,  the  rows  are 
laid  out  in  accordance  with  the  shape  of  the  vineyard ;  or,  if 
the  land  is  hilly,  the  rows  follow  the  contour  of  the  declivities 
to  prevent  soil  erosion  by  heavy  rains. 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  75 

Alleys. 

For  convenience  in  vineyard  operations,  especially  spraying 
and  harvesting,  there  should  always  be  alleys  through  a  vine- 
yard. Oh  hilly  lands,  the  alleys  are  located  to  secure  ease  in 
hauling;  on  level  lands  they  are  usually  arranged  to  cut  the 
vineyards  into  blocks  twice  as  long  as  wide.  An  alley  is  usually 
made  by  leaving  out  a  row  of  vines.  Many  vineyards  are  laid 
out  with  rows  far  enough  apart  so  that  alleys  are  not  needed. 

Distances  between  rows  and  plants. 

There  are  great  variations  in  the  distances  between  rows  and 
plants  in  different  regions,  and  distances  vary  somewhat  in 
any  one  region.  Distances  are  influenced  by  the  following 
considerations :  Rich  soils  and  large  vigorous  varieties  require 
greater  distances  than  poor  soils  and  less  vigorous  varieties; 
sometimes,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  crowd  a  variety  in  the 
vineyard  so  that  by  reducing  its  vigor  fruitfulness  may  be  pro- 
moted. Usually  the  warmer  the  climate,  or  the  exposure,  the 
greater  should  be  the  distance  between  vines.  Very  often  the 
topography  of  the  land  dictates  planting  distances.  But  while 
taking  in  account  the  preceding  considerations,  which  rightly 
suggest  the  distances  between  plants  in  the  row,  convenience 
in  vineyard  operations  is  the  factor  that  most  often  fixes  the 
distance  between  rows.  The  rows  must  be  far  enough  apart 
in  commercial  vineyards  to  permit  the  use  of  two  horses  in 
plowing,  spraying  and  harvesting. 

Planted  in  squares,  the  distance  varies  from  seven  feet  in 
garden  culture  to  nine  feet  in  commercial  vineyards  for  eastern 
America.  More  often,  however,  the  rows  are  eight  or  nine 
feet  apart,  with  the  vines  six,  seven  or  eight  and  in  the  South 
ten  or  twelve  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  Planting  distances  are 
less,  as  a  rule,  on  the  Pacific  slope  than  in  eastern  regions ;  that 
is,  the  distances  between  the  rows  are  the  same,  to  permit  work 


76  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

with  teams,  but  the  distance  between  plants  in  the  rows  is 
less,  sometimes  being  no  greater  than  three  and  a  half  or  four 
feet.  The  rank-growing  Rotundifolias  of  the  southern  states 
need  much  room,  nine  by  sixteen  feet  being  none  too  much. 
Sunshine  must  govern  the  distance  apart  somewhat.  Grapes 
picked  in  the  pleached  alleys  of  closely  set  vineyards  of  the 
North  and  East  are  few,  small  and  poor ;  farther  south,  shade 
from  the  vines  may  be  a  requisite  for  a  good  crop. 

The  number  of  vines  to  the  acre  must  be  determined  before 
growing  or  buying  plants.  This  is  done  by  multiplying  the 
distance  in  feet  between  the  rows  by  the  distance  the  plants 
are  apart  in  the  row,  and  dividing  43,560,  the  number  of  square 
feet  in  an  acre,  by  the  product. 

PREPARATION  FOR  PLANTING 

It  is  impossible  to  put  too  much  emphasis  on  the  necessity 
of  thorough  preparation  of  the  land  before  planting  the  grape. 
Extra  expenditure  to  secure  good  tilth  is  amply  repaid  by 
increased  growth  in  the  grape,  and  all  subsequent  care  may 
fail  to  start  the  vines  in  vigorous  growth  if  the  land  is  not  in 
good  tilth  preparatory  to  planting.  The  vineyard  is  to  stand 
a  generation  or  more,  and  its  soil  is  virtually  immortal,  two 
facts  to  suggest  perfect  preparation.  The  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly well  plowed,  harrowed,  mixed  and  smoothed.  The 
better  this  work  is  done,  the  greater  the  potentialities  of  the 
vineyard.  Here,  indeed,  is  a  time  to  be  mindful  of  the  adage 
which  comes  from  Cato,  a  sturdy  old  Roman  grape-grower  of 
2000  years  ago  :  "The  face  of  the  master  is  good  for  the  land/' 

Preparation  is  a  series  of  operations  in  which  it  is  wise  to  take 
advantage  of  time  and  begin  a  year  before  the  vines  are  to  be 
set.  The  land  must  be  put  in  training  to  fit  it  for  the  long 
service  it  is  to  render.  The  two  great  essentials  of  preparation 
are  provision  for  drainage  and  thorough  cultivation.  Both, 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  77 

to  be  performed  as  the  well-being  of  the  grape  require,  take 
time,  and  a  year  is  none  too  short  a  period  in  which  to  do  the 
work.  Moreover,  newly  drained  and  deeply  plowed  land 
requires  time  for  frost,  air,  sunshine  and  rain  to  sweeten  and 
enliven  the  soil  after  the  mixture  by  these  operations  of  live 
topsoil  with  inert  subsoil. 

Drainage. 

The  ideal  soil,  as  we  are  often  told,  resembles  a  sponge,  and 
is  capable  of  retaining  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  plant- 
food  dissolved  in  water,  and  at  the  same  time  is  permeable  for 
air.  This  ideal,  sponge-like  condition  is  particularly  desirable 
for  the  grape,  especially  native  species,  because  the  vines  of 
all  are  exceedingly  deep-rooted.  Moreover,  grapes  thrive 
best  in  a  warm  soil.  While,  therefore,  the  roots  may  make 
good  use  of  nutritious  solutions,  if  not  too  diluted,  in  an  un- 
drained  soil,  they  suffocate  and  do  not  receive  sufficient  bottom 
heat.  It  must  be  made  emphatic  that  the  grape  will  not 
thrive  in  water-logged  land. 

Unless  the  land  is  naturally  well  drained,  under-drainage 
must  be  provided  as  the  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  land  for 
the  vineyard.  Tile-draining  is  usually  best  done  by  those  who 
make  land-draining  their  business,  but  information  as  to  every 
requirement  of  land  and  detail  of  work  may  be  secured  from 
many  texts,  so  that  grape-growers  may  perform  the  work  for 
themselves.  In  concluding  the  topic,  the  reader  must  be 
reminded  that  high  and  hill  lands  are  not  necessarily  well 
drained,  and  low  lands  are  not  necessarily  wet  even  if  the  sur- 
face is  level.  Often  hilltops  and  hillsides  need  artificial  drain- 
ing ;  much  less  often  valley  lands  and  level  lands  may  not 
need  it.  To  assume,  too,  that  gravelly  and  shaley  soils  are 
always  well  drained  often  leads  directly  contrary  to.  the  truth. 
Sandy  and  gravelly  soils  need  drainage  nearly  as  often  as 
loamy  and  clayey  ones. 


78  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Following  tiling,  if  the  land  has  had  to  be  under-drained, 
the  vineyard  should  be  graded  to  fill  depressions  and  to  make 
the  surface  uniform.  Usually  this  can  be  done  with  cutaway, 
tooth  or  some  other  harrow,  but  sometimes  the  grader  or 
road-scraper  must  be  put  in  use. 

Fitting  the  land. 

Preparatory  cultivation  should  begin  the  spring  preceding 
planting  by  deep  plowing.  If  the  land  has  been  used  long  for 
general  farming  so  that  a  hard  plow-sole  has  been  formed  by 
years  of  shallow  plowing,  a  subsoil-plow  should  follow  in  the 
furrow  of  the  surface  plow,  although  it  is  seldom  advisable  to 
go  deeply  into  the  true  hardpan.  Fitting  the  land  must  not 
stop  here  but  should  continue  through  the  summer  with  harrow 
and  cultivator  to  pulverize  the  soil  almost  to  its  ultimate 
particles.  Such  cultivation  can  be  sufficiently  thorough,  and 
be  made  at  the  same  time  profitable,  by  growing  some  hoed 
crop  which  requires  intensive  culture.  If  the  soil  lacks  humus, 
a  cover-crop  of  clover  or  other  legume  might  well  be  sown  in 
early  summer  to  be  plowed  under  in  late  fall.  Or,  if  stable 
manure  is  available,  this  generally  should  be  applied  the  fall 
before  planting.  Stable  manure  applied  at  this  time  to  a  soil 
inclined  to  be  niggardly  puts  an  atmosphere  in  the  forth- 
coming vineyard  wholly  denied  the  grower  who  must  rely  on 
commercial  fertilizers. 

The  land  should  be  plowed  again,  deeply  and  as  early  in 
the  fall  as  possible,  harrowed  thoroughly,  or  possibly  cross- 
plowed  and  then  harrowed.  The  land  must  go  into  the  winter 
ready  for  early  spring  planting  and  the  fall  w^ork  must  be  done 
promptly  and  with  a  sturdy  team  and  sharp,  bright  tools.  The 
grower  must  keep  in  mind  that  no  opportunity  will  offer  during 
the  life  of  the  vineyard  to  even  up  for  slackness  in  the  start  and 
that  a  vineyard  of  dingy,  unhappy  vines  may  be  the  result  of 
neglect  at  this  critical  time.  Good  tilth  should  proceed  until 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  79 

the  earth  is  fairly  animated  with  growth  when  the  vines  are 
planted.     Plate  II  shows  a  piece  of  land  well  fitted  for  planting. 

Marking  for  planting. 

Given  level  land,  a  well-made  marker,  a  gentle  team  and  a 
careful  driver  with  a  surveyor's  eye,  and  a  vineyard  may  be 
marked  for  planting  with  a  sled-marker,  a  modified  corn-marker 
or  even  a  plow.  Some  such  marker  method  is  commonest  in 
use  in  laying  out  vineyard  rows,  but  it  is  patent  to  the  eye  of 
every  passer-by  in  grape  regions  that  the  commonest  method 
is  not  the  best  to  secure  perfect  alignment  of  row  and  vine.  The 
combination  named  for  good  work  with  any  of  the  marker 
methods  is  found  too  seldom.  If  the  marker  method  is  used, 
it  is  put  in  practice  as  follows :  The  rows  being  marked  at  the 
distance  decided  on,  a  deep  furrow  is  plowed  along  the  row  by 
going  both  ways  with  the  plow ;  this  done,  small  stakes  are  set 
in  the  furrow  at  the  proper  distances  for  the  vines,  taking  care 
to  line  them  both  ways.  Planting  holes  are  thus  dug  in  the 
furrow  with  the  stakes  as  a  center. 

Marking  by  means  of  a  measuring  wire  or  chain  is  the  best 
method  of  locating  vines  accurately  in  a  vineyard.  The  meas- 
uring wire  varies  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  user  from  two 
to  three  hundred  feet  or  may  be  even  longer.  The  best  wires 
are  made  of  annealed  steel  wire  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  At  each  end  of  the  wire  is  a  strong  iron  ring  to  be 
slipped  over  stakes.  The  wire  is  marked  throughout  its  length 
by  patches  of  solder  at  the  distances  desired  between  rows  of 
vines ;  to  make  these  places  more  easily  seen,  pieces  of  red  cloth 
are  fastened  to  them.  Sometimes  this  measuring  wire  is  made 
of  several  strands  of  small  wire,  giving  more  flexibility  and 
making  marking  easier,  since  by  separating  the  strands  at  the 
desired  points,  pieces  of  cloth  may  be  tied  to  mark  distances. 

In  using  the  wire,  the  side  of  the  vineyard  which  is  to  serve 
as  the  base  of  the  square  is  selected  and  the  wire  is  stretched, 


80  MANUAL   OF    AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

leaving  at  least  one  rod  from  road  or  fence  for  a  headland. 
With  the  wire  thus  stretched,  a  stake  is  placed  at  each  of  the 
distance  tags  to  represent  the  first  row  of  vines.  Beginning 
at  the  starting  point,  sixty  feet  are  measured  off  in  the  base 
line  and  a  temporary  stake  is  set ;  eighty  feet  at  a  right  angle 
with  the  first  line  are  then  measured  off  at  the  corner  stake, 
judging  the  angle  with  the  eye ;  then  run  diagonally  from 
the  eighty-foot  stake  to  the  sixty-foot  stake.  If  the  distance 
between  the  two  stakes  is  one  hundred  feet,  the  corner  is  a 
right  angle.  With  the  base  lines  thus  started  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  one  can  measure  off  with  the  measuring  wire  as 
large  an  area  as  he  desires  by  taking  care  to  have  the  line  each 
time  drawn  parallel  with  the  last,  and  the  stakes  accurately 
placed  at  the  marking  points  on  the  wire. 

Still  another  method  which  may  be  put  to  good  use  in  laying 
out  a  vineyard,  especially  if  the  vineyard  is  small,  is  to  combine 
measure  and  sight.  The  distances  about  the  vineyard  are 
measured  and  stakes  set  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  rows  around 
the  area.  Good  stakes  can  be  made  from  laths  pointed  at 
one  end  and  whitewashed  at  the  other.  A  line  of  stakes  is 
then  set  across  the  field  each  way  through  the  center,  in  places, 
of  course,  which  the  two  central  rowrs  of  vines  will  fill.  When 
these  are  in  place,  if  the  area  is  not  too  large  or  too  hilly,  all 
measurements  can  be  dispensed  with  and  the  vines  can  be  set 
by  sighting.  A  man  at  the  end  of  the  row  has  three  laths  to 
sight  by  in  each  row  and  a  second  man  should  drive  stakes  as 
directed  by  the  sighter.  Accurate  work  can  be  done  by  this 
method,  but  it  requires  time,  a  good  eye  and  much  patience 
in  the  man  who  is  sighting. 

SELECTING  AND  PREPARING  THE  VINES 

Young  grape  vines  covet  life,  for  they  are  usually  vigorous 
and  not  easily  injured.  Hence,  the  plants  may  be  brought 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  81 

from  a  distance  without  fear  of  loss.  The  local  nurseryman 
is,  however,  a  good  adviser  as  to  varieties  if  he  is  honest  and 
intelligent,  and,  other  things  equal,  he  should  be  patronized. 
But  if  the  grower's  needs  cannot  be  met  at  home,  he  should 
not  hesitate  to  seek  a  nurseryman  at  a  distance.  This  is  more 
necessary  with  the  grape  than  other  fruits  because  young 
grapes  are  well  and  cheaply  grown  in  certain  localities  only. 
With  the  grape,  as  with  all  fruit  plants,  it  is  much  better  to 
buy  from  the  grower  than  from  tree  peddlers. 

Selecting  vines. 

Unless  the  buyer  knows  what  he  wants,  selecting  vines  is 
gambling  pure  and  simple.  Fortunately,  there  are  several 
marks  of  good  vines  very  helpful  to  those  who  know  them. 
One  should  first  make  sure  that  the  roots  and  tops  are  alive  to 
the  remotest  parts.  The  vines  should  have  a  good  clean, 
healthy  look  with  trunk  diameter  large  enough  to  indicate 
vigorous  growth,  and  an  ample  spread  of  roots.  Large  size 
is  not  as  desirable  as  firm,  well-matured  wood  and  an  abun- 
dance of  roots.  Vines  with  internodes  of  medium  length  for 
the  variety  are  better  than  those  with  great  length  or  very  short 
internodes.  Such  precautions  as  are  possible  should  be  taken 
to  insure  varieties  true  to  name,  although  here  the  reputation 
of  the  nurseryman  must  be  depended  on  except  for  the  few 
varieties  which  may  be  known  at  sight  in  the  nursery. 

First-grade  one-year-old  vines  are  usually  better  than  two- 
year-olds.  Stunted  vines  are  not  worth  planting  and  two-year- 
old  vines  are  often  stunted  one-year-olds.  A  few  weak-grow- 
ing varieties  gain  in  vigor  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  nursery 
two  years  —  three  years,  never. 

Handling  and  preparing  the  Dines. 

The  better  vines  are  packed,  transported  and  cared  for  in 
the  field,  the  quicker  will  the  roots  take  hold  and  the  vines 


82  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

make  the  vigorous  start  on  which  so  much  depends.  The 
nurseryman  should  be  requested  not  to  prune  much  before 
packing  and  to  pack  the  vines  well  for  shipping.  The  vines 
should  be  heeled-in  as  soon  as  they  reach  their  destination.  If 
the  vines  are  dry  on  arrival,  they  should  be  drenched  well 
before  heeling-in.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  vines  are 
shriveled  and  shrunken  from  excessive  drying,  in  which  case 
the  plants  often  may  be  brought  back  to  plumpness  by  burying 
them  root  and  branch  in  damp  earth,  to  remain  a  week  or 
possibly  two.  To  heel-in,  a  trench  should  be  double  furrowed 
in  light,  moist  soil,  the  vines  spread  out  in  the  trench  two  or 
three  deep,  and  then  earth  shoveled  over  the  roots  and  half 
the  tops,  sifting  it  in  the  roots,  after  which  the  soil  is  firmed. 
The  vines  may  thus  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  several  weeks 
if  need  arises. 

The  vines  are  prepared  for  planting  by  cutting  away  all 
dead  or  injured  roots  and  shortening-in  the  healthy  roots. 
Grape  roots  can  be  cut  severely  if  healthy  stubs  remain,  the 
removal  of  small  roots  and  fibers  doing  no  harm,  since  fibers 
are  of  value  only  as  indicating  that  the  vine  is  strong  and 
vigorous.  Fresh  fibers  come  quickly  from  stout,  healthy 
roots.  Most  of  the  fibers  of  a  transplanted  vine  die,  and 
laying  them  out  in  the  hole  to  preserve  them,  as  is  so  often 
recommended,  is  but  a  useless  burial  rite.  On  good  healthy 
vines,  the  stubs  of  the  roots,  when  cut  back,  will  be  four  to 
eight  inches  in  length.  The  root  system  having  been  con- 
siderably pruned,  the  reciprocity  between  roots  and  tops 
must  be  taken  into  account  and  the  top  pruned  accordingly. 
To  reduce  the  work  of  the  leaves  to  harmonize  with  the  activ- 
ities of  the  roots,  the  top  should  be  pruned  to  a  single  cane 
and  two,  never  more  than  three,  buds.  The  vine  is  now  ready 
for  planting  and,  the  soil  being  in  readiness,  planting  should 
proceed  apace. 


PLATE  VI.  —  Black  Hamburg  (X  J). 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS    MANAGEMENT  83 

PLANTING 

The  dangers  and  difficulties  of  planting  hardwooded  plants 
are  greatly  exaggerated.  The  tyro,  in  particular,  is  impressed 
with  his  responsibilities  at  this  time,  and  often  sends  a  hurry-up 
call  to  experiment  station  or  nurseryman  to  "send  him  a  man 
to  plant."  If  the  land  is  properly  prepared  and  the  plants 
in  good  condition,  the  operation  of  planting  is  easily,  quickly 
and  safely  accomplished.  There  is  no  need,  in  planting  the 
vine,  of  such  puttering  overniceties  as  laying  out  the  roots  to 
preserve  the  fibers,  watering  each  vine  as  it  is  set,  inserting 
the  vine  in  a  gingerly  fashion  to  make  sure  that  it  stands  in 
its  new  abode  as  it  stood  in  the  old,  or  puddling  the  roots  in 
pail  or  tub  of  water.  On  the  other  hand,  the  slap-dash  method 
of  a  Stringfellow  who  cuts  off  all  small  roots  and  uses  a  crow- 
bar in  place  of  a  spade  is  not  doing  duty  by  the  plant,  and  bury- 
ing the  roots  deep  in  the  earth  or  covering  them  close  to  the 
surface  is  courting  failure. 

Digging  the  holes. 

This  is  a  simple  task  in  land  in  good  tilth.  The  holes  need 
only  be  large  and  deep  enough  to  hold  the  roots  without  undue 
cramping.  Herein  is  again  manifested  the  wisdom  of  thoroughly 
preparing  the  land;  for,  in  well-prepared  land,  the  hole  is 
really  as  large  as  the  vineyard.  Even  in  the  condition  of  poor 
tilth,  deep  holes  are  often  a  menace  to  the  life  of  the  plant, 
especially  if  drainage  is  not  provided,  for  the  deep  hole  becomes 
a  tub  into  which  water  pours  and  stands  to  soak  the  roots  of 
dying  vines.  An  extra  spurt  in  digging  holes  cannot  take  the 
place  of  perfect  fitting  of  the  land. 

There  is  nothing  to  commend  the  practice  of  digging  holes 
in  a  leisure  time  that  all  may  be  ready  when  the  time  to  plant 
arrives.  The  vines  will  strike  root  best  in  the  freshly  turned, 
moist  soil  of  newly  dug  earth,  which  can  be  firmly  set  about 


84          MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

the  roots  when  the  vine  is  planted.  Neither  is  time  saved 
in  digging  beforehand,  for  the  sun-baked  and  rain-washed  sides 
of  holes  long  dug  would  surely  have  to  be  pared  afresh.  It  is, 
however,  quite  worth  while  to  throw  the  surface  soil  to  one 
side  and  that  lower  to  the  other,  that  a  spadeful  of  moist, 
virile,  surface  soil  may  be  put  next  to  the  roots. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  some  soils  in  which  the  holes  might  be 
blasted  out  with  dynamite,  as,  for  instance,  in  a  shallow  soil 
with  the  hardpan  near  the  surface  and  good  subsoil  beneath. 
It  is  very  questionable,  however,  whether  these  defective  soils 
should  be  used  for  commercial  plantings  as  long  as  there  still 
remain  unplanted  many  acres  in  all  grape  regions  of  good  deep 
land  for  the  grape.  To  such  as  are  attracted  by  "  dynamite 
farming,"  minute  descriptions  of  methods  of  use  of  dynamite 
and  even  demonstrations  may  be  secured  from  manufacturers 
of  the  explosive. 

Time  to  plant. 

The  best  time  to  plant  the  vine  in  cold  climates  is  early  spring, 
when  sun  and  showers  arouse  the  spirit  of  growth  in  plants, 
and  nutritive  solutions  proceed  quickly  and  unerringly  to  their 
preappointed  places.  At  this  time,  the  much  mutilated  vine 
can  undertake  best  the  double  task  of  making  fresh  roots  and 
opening  the  dormant  leaves.  Fall  planting  puts  forward  the 
work,  thus  diminishing  the  rush  of  early  spring  when  vineyard 
operations  crowd,  and,  no  doubt,  when  all  is  favorable,  enables 
the  vines  to  start  a  little  more  quickly.  However,  there  are 
frequently  serious  losses  from  planting  in  the  fall.  In  cold 
winters  the  grip  of  frost  is  sufficient  to  wrench  the  young  vine 
from  its  place  and  sometimes  all  but  heaves  it  out  of  the  soil. 
There  is,  also,  great  liability  of  winter-killing  in  vines  trans- 
planted in  the  autumn,  not  because  of  greater  tenderness  of 
the  plant,  but  because  of  greater  porosity  of  the  loosened  soil 
which  enables  the  cold  to  strike  to  a  greater  depth.  These 


THE    VINEYARD    AND   ITS    MANAGEMENT  85 

two  objections  to  fall  planting  can  be  overcome  largely  by 
mounding  up  the  earth  so  as  practically  to  cover  the  vines, 
leveling  the  mound  in  early  spring ;  but  this  extra  work  more 
than  offsets  the  labor  saving  in  fall  planting. 

In  climates  in  which  the  soil  does  not  freeze  in  the  winter, 
the  vines  may  be  set  in  the  autumn  if  all  is  favorable.  Often, 
however,  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  fall  planting  in  warm 
climates,  since  autumn  rains  frequently  soak  the  soil  so  that 
it  cannot  be  placed  properly  about  the  roots ;  and,  moreover, 
in  a  cold,  water-logged  soil  the  inactive  roots  begin  to  decay ; 
or  the  soil  may  be  too  dry  for  fall  planting.  Under  such  condi- 
tions, it  is  often  better  to  delay  planting  in  warm  climates  until 
spring  when  better  soil  conditions  can  be  secured.  Fall  or 
spring,  the  soil  should  be  reasonably  dry,  warm  and  mellow 
when  the  work  is  done.  The  best  time  to  plant  must  necessarily 
vary  from  year  to  year,  and  the  vineyardist  must  decide  exactly 
when  to  undertake  planting  in  accordance  with  the  conditions 
of  soil  and  weather,  mindful  that  the  Psalmist's  injunction 
that  there  is  "a  time  to  plant,  and  a  time  to  pluck  up  that 
which  is  planted"  is  subject  to  several  conditions  requiring 
judgment.  The  grape  puts  out  its  leaves  late  in  the  spring, 
making  the  temptation  great  to  delay  planting ;  late-set  plants, 
however,  need  special  care  lest  they  suffer  from  the  summer 
droughts  which  annually  parch  the  lands  of  this  continent. 

The  operation  of  planting. 

All  being  in  readiness,  planting  proceeds  rapidly.  A  gang 
of  four  men  work  to  advantage.  Two  dibholes,  a  third  holds 
the  vines  and  tramps  the  earth  as  the  remaining  man  shovels 
in  earth.  Except  in  large  vineyards,  four  men  are  seldom 
available,  and  gangs  of  two  or  three  must  divide  the  work 
among  its  members  as  best  suits  conditions.  A  tree-setting 
board  is  not  needed  in  planting  grapes,  although  some  growers 
use  it.  The  man  who  holds  the  vines  in  the  hole  and  tramps 


86  MANUAL   OF    AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

as  the  shoveler  fills,  must  align  the  plant  after  the  stake  is 
removed  and  see  that  it  stands  perpendicularly  in  the  hole. 
The  stake,  a  lath,  is  set  in  its  old  place  in  the  hole  to  serve  as  a 
support  for  the  growing  vine  and  to  mark  it  so  that  the  culti- 
vator does  not  pull  up  the  young  plant.  The  soil  must  be  set 
firm  about  the  roots  of  the  plant,  but  zeal  in  tramping  should 
diminish  as  the  hole  is  filled,  leaving  the  topsoil  untramped, 
smooth,  loose  and  pulverized,  a  dust  mulch  —  the  best  of  all 
mulches  —  to  prevent  evaporation. 

The  depth  to  which  vines  should  be  set  is  a  matter  of  con- 
troversy. This  should  be  governed  by  the  soil  more  than  by 
any  other  factor,  although  some  varieties  need  a  deeper  root- 
run  than  others.  The  rule  to  plant  to  the  depth  the  vine  stood 
in  the  nursery  row  is  safe  under  most  conditions,  although  in 
light,  hungry  or  thirsty  soils  the  roots  should  go  deeper ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  heavy  soils,  not  so  deep.  Deep  plant- 
ing is  a  more  common  mistake  than  shallow  planting,  for  roots 
under  most  conditions  stand  exposure  better  than  internment, 
going  down  being  more  natural  than  coming  up  for  a  root  seek- 
ing a  place  to  its  liking. 

Watering  at  planting  is  necessary  only  when  the  land  is 
parched  with  drought  or  in  regions  in  which  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed. When  necessary,  water  should  be  used  liberally,  at 
least  a  gallon  or  two  to  a  vine.  After  the  earth  has  been  firmed 
about  the  roots  and  the  hole  is  nearly  filled,  the  water  should 
be  poured  in  and  the  hole  filled  without  more  firming.  Under 
dry  weather  conditions,  some  prefer  to  puddle  the  roots;  that 
is,  to  dip  them  in  thin  mud  and  plant  with  the  mud  adhering. 
In  making  the  puddle,  loose  loam  and  not  sticky  clay  is  used, 
as  clay  may  bake  so  hard  as  to  injure  the  roots.  With  puddling, 
as  with  watering,  the  surface  soil  should  be  left  loose  and  soft 
without  traces  of  the  puddling  below. 

Manure  or  fertilizer  about  the  roots  or  even  in  the  hole  are 
not  necessary  or  even  desirable.  If  the  soil  is  to  be  enriched 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS    MANAGEMENT  87 

at  all  at  planting  time,  the  fertilizer  should  be  spread  on  the 
surface  to  be  cultivated  in  or  to  have  its  food  elements  leak 
down  as  rains  fall.  In  land  in  which  the  providential  design 
for  grapes  is  plainly  manifested,  the  vine  at  no  time  responds 
heartily  to  fertilizers,  the  good  of  stable  manure  probably 
coming  for  the  most  part  from  its  effects  on  the  texture  and 
water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  The  newly  set  plant  is 
not  in  need  of  outside  nourishment;  to  put  rank  manure  or 
strong  commercial  fertilizers  about  the  roots  of  a  young  newly 
set  vine  is  plant  infanticide. 

CARE  OF  YOUNG  VINES 

Virgil  calls  the  period  in  the  life  of  the  vine  between  the 
setting  and  the  first  vintage,  the  "tender  nonage/'  and  tells 
us  that  at  this  time  the  vines  need  careful  rearing ;  so  they  do, 
now  as  then,  American  grapes  as  well  as  the  grapes  of  ancient 
Rome.  Fortunately,  any  departure  from  normal  well-being 
is  easily  told  in  the  grape,  for  the  color  of  the  leaf  is  as  accurate 
an  index  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  vine  as  the  color  of  the 
tongue  or  the  beat  of  the  pulse  in  man.  A  change  of  color 
from  the  luxuriant  green  of  thrifty  grape  foliage,  especially  the 
yellow  hue  indicating  that  the  leaf -green  is  not  functioning 
properly,  suggests  that  the  vines  are  sick  or  need  nursing  in 
some  detail  of  care.  When  all  goes  well,  however,  the  amazing 
energy  of  Nature  is  nowhere  better  seen  among  plants  than 
in  the  growth  of  the  grape,  so  that  much  of  the  care  is  in  the 
use  of  the  knife ;  in  fact,  as  we  shall  see,  the  grape  almost  lives 
by  the  knife  the  first  two  years  out. 

The  first  year. 

The  vines  having  been  pruned  and  staked  at  planting,  these 
operations  need  no  attention  in  the  first  summer.  Many 
varieties  send  up  several  shoots  as  growth  starts,  and,  except 


88          MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

in  the  case  of  grafted  plants  and  in  the  event  of  the  suckers 
coming  from  the  stock,  these  should  be  left  to  feed  the  vine  and 
help  to  establish  a  good  root  system.  Vines  making  a  strong 
growth  should  be  tied  to  the  stake,  at  least  the  strongest  shoot, 
to  keep  the  wind  from  whipping  it  about  and  to  keep  the  plants 
out  of  the  way  of  the  cultivator.  The  only  knack  in  tying  is 
to  keep  the  vine  on  the  windward  side  of  the  stake,  thus  saving 
the  breaking  of  tying  material. 

The  first  year's  pruning,  though  severe,  is  easily  done.  All 
but  the  strongest  cane  are  cut  out  and  this  is  pruned  back  to 
two  buds,  nearly  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  vines  are  much  as 
when  set  in  the  vineyard.  This  pruning,  and  that  of  the  next 
two  years,  has  as  the  object  the  establishment  of  a  good  root 
system  and  the  production  of  a  sturdy  trunk  at  the  height 
at  which  the  vine  is  to  be  headed.  It  is  important  that  the 
cane  from  which  the  trunk  is  to  come  be  healthy  and  the  wood 
well  ripened.  Pruning  may  be  done  at  any  time  after  the 
leaves  fall,  though  most  growers  give  preference  to  late  winter. 
In  cold  climates  it  is  a  good  practice  to  plow  up  to  the  young 
vines  for  winter  protection,  in  which  case  the  pruning  should 
be  done  before  plowing. 

Every  detail  of  vineyard  management  should  be  performed 
with  care  and  at  the  accepted  time  in  this  critical  first  year. 
Cultivation  must  be  intensive,  insects  and  fungi  must  be  warded 
off,  mechanical  injuries  avoided,  vines  that  have  refused  to 
grow  must  be  marked  for  discard,  and  the  vineyard  be  put 
down  to  a  cover-crop  in  early  August  if  it  was  not  earlier  planted 
to  some  hoed  catch-crop. 

The  second  year. 

Work  begins  in  the  spring  of  the  second  year  with  the  setting 
of  trellis  posts  on  which  one  wire  is  put  up.  The  vine  is  not 
yet  ready  to  train  but  the  slender  lath  of  the  first  season  is 
not  sufficient  support,  and  the  one  wire  on  the  future  trellis 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS    MANAGEMENT  89 

saves  the  expense  of  staking.  Tying  requires  some  care  and 
is  usually  done  with  string  or  bast.  As  the  summer  proceeds, 
suckers  from  the  roots  are  removed  and  some  growers  thin  the 
shoots  on  the  young  vine ;  some  think  it  necessary  also  to  top 
the  growth  if  it  becomes  too  luxuriant  and  so  keep  the  cane 
within  bounds.  Suckers  must  be  cut  or  broken  off  at  the  points 
where  they  originate,  otherwise  several  new  ones  may  start 
from  the  base  of  the  old.  If  the  vines  are  topped,  it  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  summer  pruning  is  weakening,  and  the  tips 
of  shoots  should,  therefore,  be  taken  when  small,  the  object 
being  to  direct  the  growth  into  those  parts  of  the  vine  which 
are  to  become  permanent. 

Pruning,  the  second  winter  the  vine  is  out,  depends  on  the 
vigor  of  the  plant.  If  a  strong,  healthy,  well-matured  cane 
over-tops  the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis,  it  should  be  cut  back  so 
that  the  cane  may  be  tied  to  the  wire ;  otherwise  the  vine  should 
again  be  cut  almost  to  the  ground,  leaving  but  three  or  four 
buds.  If  the  cane  be  left,  in  addition  to  sturdiness  and  maturity, 
it  should  be  straight,  for  it  is  to  become  the  trunk  of  the  mature 
vine.  The  training  of  the  young  vine  is  now  at  an  end,  for 
the  next  season  the  vine  must  be  started  toward  its  permanent 
form,  instructions  for  which  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  pruning. 

The  summer  care  of  the  vineyard  does  not  differ  materially 
in  the  second  year  from  that  of  the  first.  Intensive  cultivation 
continues,  the  vines  are  treated  for  pests  and  the  annual  cover- 
crop  follows  cultivation.  Many  varieties,  if  vigorous,  will 
set  some  fruit  in  this  second  summer,  but  the  crop  should  not 
be  allowed  to  mature,  the  sooner  removeo^  the  better,  as  fruit- 
ing at  this  stage  of  growth  seriously  weakens  the  young  vines. 

CATCH-CROPS  AND  COVER-CROPS 

A  catch-crop  is  one  grown  between  the  rows  of  another  crop 
for  profit  from  the  produce.  A  cover-crop  is  a  temporary 


90  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

crop  grown,  as  the  term  was  first  used,  to  protect  the  soil,  but 
the  word  is  now  used  to  include  green-manuring  crops  as  well. 
Catch-crops  seldom  have  a  place  in  most  vineyards,  but  cover- 
crops  are  often  grown. 

Catch-crops. 

Catch-crops  are  not,  as  a  rule,  profitable  in  commercial 
vineyards;  they  may  bring  temporary  profit  but  in  the  long 
run  they  are  usually  detrimental  to  the  vines.  It  may  pay  and 
the  grape  may  not  be  injured  in  some  localities,  if  such  truck 
crops  as  potatoes,  beans,  tomatoes  and  cabbage  are  grown 
between  the  rows  or  even  in  the  rows  for  the  first  year  and 
possibly  the  second.  Land,  to  do  duty  by  the  two  crops, 
however,  must  be  excellent  and  the  care  of  both  crops  must 
be  of  the  best.  Growing  gooseberries,  currants,  any  of  the 
brambles,  or  even  strawberries,  is  a  poor  procedure  unless  the 
vineyard  is  small,  the  land  very  valuable  or  other  conditions 
prevail  which  make  intensive  culture  possible  or  necessary. 
The  objections  to  catch-crops  in  the  vineyard  are  two :  they 
rob  the  vines  of  food  and  moisture  and  endanger  them  to  injury 
from  tools  in  caring  for  the  catch-crop. 

Sometimes  the  grape  itself  is  planted  as  a  catch-crop  in  the 
vineyard.  That  is,  twice  the  number  of  vines  required  in  a 
row  for  the  permanent  vineyard  are  set  with  the  expectation 
of  cutting  out  alternate  vines  when  two  or  three  crops  have 
been  harvested  and  the  vines  begin  to  crowd.  This  practice  is 
preferable  to  interplanting  with  bush-fruits,  yet  there  is  not 
much  to  commend  it  if  the  experience  of  those  who  have  tried 
it  is  taken  as  a  guide.  Too  often  the  filler  vines  are  left  a  year 
too  long  with  the  result  that  the  permanent  vines  are  checked 
in  growth  for  several  years  following.  The  profits  from  the 
fillers  are  never  large,  scarcely  pay  for  the  extra  work,  and  if 
the  permanent  vines  are  stunted,  the  filler  must  be  put  down 
as  a  liability  rather  than  as  an  asset. 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   TTS    MANAGEMENT  91 

• 

Cover-crops. 

In  an  experiment  being  conducted  by  the  New  York  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  grapes  do  not  give  a  very  appre- 
ciable response  to  cover-crops  in  yield  of  fruit  or  growth  of 
vine.1  There  seem  to  be  no  other  experiments  to  confirm  the 
results  at  the  New  York  Station,  and  grape-growers  nowhere 
have  used  cover-crops  very  generally  for  the  betterment  of  their 
vineyards.  There  is  doubt,  therefore,  as  to  whether  grapes 
will  respond  profitably  to  the  annual  use  of  cover-crops  in  yield 
of  fruit,  which,  of  course,  is  the  ultimate  test  of  the  value  of 
cover-crops,  but  a  test  hard  to  apply  unless  the  experiment 
runs  a  great  number  of  years. 

Leaving  out  the  doubtful  value  of  cover-crops  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  plant-food  and  thereby  producing  an  increase 
in  yield,  there  are  at  least  three  ways  in  which  cover-crops 
are  valuable  in  the  vineyard.  Thus,  it  is  patent  to  all  who  have 
tried  cover-crops  in  the  vineyard  that  the  land  is  in  much  better 
tilth  and  more  easily  worked  when  some  green  crop  is  turned 
under  in  fall  or  spring ;  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume,  though 
it  is  impossible  to  secure  reliable  experimental  data  to  confirm 
the  belief,  that  cover-crops  protect  the  roots  of  grapes  from 
winter-killing ;  certainly  it  may  be  expected  that  a  cover- 
crop  sowed  in  midsummer  will  cause  grapes  to  mature  their  wood 
earlier  and  more  thoroughly  so  that  the  vines  go  into  the  winter  in 
better  condition.  The  only  objection  to  be  raised  against 
cover-crops  in  the  vineyard  is  that  pickers,  mostly  women, 
object  to  the  cover-crop  when  wet  with  rain  or  dew  and  usually 
choose  to  pick  in  vineyards  having  no  stfch  crop.  This  seem- 
ingly insignificant  factor  often  gives  the  grape-grower  who 
sows  cover-crops  much  trouble  in  harvest  time. 

Several  cover-crops  may  be  planted  in  vineyards  as  clover, 

1  For  an  account  of  this  experiment,  see  Bui.  381  of  the  N.  Y.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.,  Geneva. 


92          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

• 

vetch,  oats,  barley,  cow-horn  turnip,  rape,  rye  and  buckwheat. 
Combinations  of  these  usually  make  the  seed  too  costly  or 
the  trouble  of  sowing  too  great.  Yet  some  combinations  of 
a  leguminous  and  non-leguminous  crop  would  seem  to  make 
the  best  green  crop  for  the  grape.  Thus,  a  bushel  of  oats  or 
barley  plus  ten  pounds  of  clover  or  twenty  pounds  of  winter 
vetch,  a  combination  often  used  in  orchards,  should  prove 
satisfactory  in  the  vineyard.  Or,  doubling  the  amount  of 
seed  for  each,  these  crops  could  be  alternated,  with  a  change 
in  the  rotation  every  four  or  six  years,  with  cow-horn  turnip 
or  rape.  Turnip  and  rape  require  at  least  three  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  acre. 

The  cover-crop  is  sown  in  midsummer,  about  the  first  of 
August  in  northern  latitudes,  and  should  be  plowed  under  in 
the  fall  or  early  spring.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the 
green  crop  be  permitted  to  stand  in  the  vineyard  late  in  the 
spring  to  rob  the  vines  of  food  and  moisture.  The  weather 
map  must  be  watched  at  sowing  time  to  make  sure  of  a  moist 
seed-bed.  Plate  III  illustrates  two  vineyards  with  well-grown 
cover-crops. 

TILLAGE 

Grape-growers  are  not  in  the  fog  that  befuddles  growers 
of  tree-fruits  in  regard  to  tillage.  He  is  a  sloven,  indeed,  who 
permits  his  vines  to  stand  a  season  in  unbroken  ground,  and 
there  are  no  growers  who  recommend  sod  or  any  of  the  modified 
sod-mulches  for  the  grape.  Tillage  is  difficult  in  hilly  regions 
and  the  operation  is  often  neglected  in  hillside  vineyards,  as 
in  the  Central  Lakes  region  of  New  York,  but  even  here  some 
sort  of  tillage  is  universal.  The  skip  of  a  single  season  in  till- 
ing stunts  the  vines,  and  two  or  three  skips  in  successive  seasons 
ruin  a  vineyard.  No  one  complains  that  grapes  suffer  from 
over-tilling  as  one  frequently  hears  of  tree-fruits.  There  is  no 
tonic  for  the  grape  that  compares  with  cultivation  when  the 


THE    VINEYARD   AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  93 

leaves  lack  color  and  hang  limp  and  the  vine  has  an  indefinable 
air  of  depression ;  and  there  is  nothing  better  than  cultivation 
to  rouse  latent  vigor  in  a  scorching  summer,  or  when  drought 
lays  heavy  on  the  land. 

Tillage  tools. 

The  tools  to  be  used  in  tilling  grapes  vary  with  the  topography 
of  the  vineyard,  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  preferences  of  the 
vineyardist.  The  best  tool  is  the  one  with  which  the  ground 
can  be  well  fitted  at  least  expense.  Good  work  in  the  vineyard 
requires  at  least  two  plows,  a  single-horse  and  a  two-horse 
plow.  The  latter,  except  on  very  hilly  land,  should  be  a  gang- 
plow.  For  commercial  vineyards  of  any  considerable  size, 
several  cultivators  are  necessary  for  different  seasons  and 
conditions  of  the  soil.  Thus,  every  vineyard  should  have  a 
spring-tooth  and  a  disc  harrow,  one  of  the  several  types  of 
weeders,  a  one-horse  and  a  sulky  cultivator.  If  weeds  abound, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  some  cutting  tool,  or  an  attachment  to 
one  of  the  cultivators,  to  slide  over  the  ground  and  cut  off  large 
weeds.  Another  indispensable  tool  in  a  large  vineyard  is  a 
one-horse  grape-hoe,  to  supplement  the  work  of  which  there 
must  be  heavy  hand-hoes.  Very  often  the  surface  soil  must 
be  pulverized,  and  a  clod-crusher,  roller  or  a  float  becomes 
a  necessity.  A  full  complement  of  bright,  sharp  tools  at  the 
command  of  the  grape-grower  goes  far  toward  success  in  his 
business. 

Tillage  methods. 

There  are  several  reliable  guides  indicating  when  the  vine- 
yard needs  to  be  tilled.  The  vineyardist  who  is  but  a  casual 
observer  of  the  relation  of  vineyard  operations  to  the  life  events 
and  the  welfare  of  his  vines  will  take  the  crop  of  weeds  as  his 
guide.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  but 
the  man  who  waits  until  weeds  force  him  to  till  will  make  a 


94          MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

poor  showing  in  his  vineyard.  The  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  is  a  better  guide.  The  chief  function  of  tillage  is  to 
save  moisture  by  checking  evaporation  and  to  put  the  soil 
in  such  condition  that  its  water-holding  capacity  is  increased. 
The  physical  condition  of  the  land  is  another  guide.  Tilling 
when  the  soil  needs  pulverizing  furnishes  a  greater  feeding 
surface  for  the  roots. 

Tillage  begins  with  plowing  in  early  spring.  Whether  pro- 
vided with  a  cover-crop  to  be  turned  under  or  hard  and  bare, 
the  land  must  be  broken  each  spring  with  the  plow.  Plowing 
is  best  done  by  running  a  single  furrow  with  a  one-horse  plow 
up  to  or  away  from  the  vines  as  occasion  calls  and  then  follow- 
ing with  a  two-horse  or  a  gang-plow.  Some  growers  use  a  disc 
harrow  instead  of  the  plow  to  break  the  land  in  the  spring, 
but  this  is  a  doubtful  procedure  in  most  vineyards  and  is  im- 
possible when  a  heavy  green-crop  covers  the  land.  Tillage 
with  harrow,  cultivator,  weeder  or  roller  then  proceeds  at  such 
intervals  as  conditions  demand,  seldom  less  than  once  a  fort- 
night, until  time  to  sow  the  cover-crop  in  midsummer.  About 
the  time  grapes  blossom,  the  grape-hoe  should  be  used  to  level 
down  the  furrow  turned  up  to.  the  vines  in  the  spring  plowing. 
Tillage  should  always  follow  a  heavy  rain  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  a  soil  crust,  this  being  a  time  when  he  who  tills  quickly 
tills  twice.  The  number  of  times  a  vineyard  should  be  tilled 
depends  on  the  soil  and  the  season.  Ten  times  over  with  the 
cultivator  in  one  vineyard  or  season  may  not  be  as  effective  as 
five  times  in  another  vineyard  or  another  season.  In  some 
regions,  as  in  New  York,  the  grower  is  so  often  at  the  mercy 
of  wet  weather  in  early  spring  that  the  plowing  is  best  done  in 
the  fall,  and  spring  operations  must  then  open  with  harrowing 
with  some  tool  that  will  break  the  land  thoroughly. 

The  depth  to  till  is  governed  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  season.  Heavy  soils  need  deep  tilling ;  light  soils,  shallow 
tilling;  in  wet  weather,  till  deeply;  in  dry  weather,  lightly. 


THE    VINEYARD    AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT  95 

Grape  roots  are  well  down  in  the  soil  and  there  is  little  danger 
of  injuring  them  in  deep  tillage.  The  depth  of  plowing  and 
cultivating  should  be  varied  somewhat  from  season  to  season 
to  avoid  the  formation  of  a  plow-sole.  In  some  regions  plow- 
ing and  cultivating  may  be  made  a  means  of  combating  insects 
and  fungi,  and  this  regulates  the  depth  of  tillage.  Thus,  in 
the  Chautauqua  grape-belt  of  western  New  York,  the  pupa  of 
the  root-worm,  a  scourge  of  the  grape  in  this  region,  is  thrown 
out  and  destroyed  by  the  grape-hoe  just  as  it  is  about  ready 
to  emerge  as  an  adult  to  lay  its  eggs  on  the  vines.  In  all  regions, 
leaves  and  mummied  grapes  bearing  countless  myriads  of  spores 
of  the  mildews,  black-rot  and  other  fungi  are  interned  by  the 
plow  and  cannot  scatter  disease. 

The  time  in  the  season  to  stop  tillage  depends  on  the  locality, 
the  season  and  the  variety.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  cease  cultiva- 
tion a  few  weeks  before  the  grapes  attain  full  size  and  begin 
to  color,  for  by  this  time  they  will  have  weighted  down  the 
vines  so  that  fruit  and  foliage  will  be  in  the  way  of  the  cultivator. 
In  the  North,  cultivation  ceases  in  the  ordinary  season  about 
the  first  of  August,  earlier  the  farther  south.  Rank-growing 
sorts,  as  Concord  or  Clinton,  do  not  need  to  be  cultivated  as 
late  as  those  of  smaller  growth  and  scantier  foliage,  as  Delaware 
or  Diamond.  The  cover-crop  seed  is  covered  the  last  time  over 
with  the  cultivator.  Plate  IV  shows  a  well-tilled  vineyard  of 
Concords. 

IRRIGATION 

The  grape,  as  a  rule,  withstands  drougjit  very  well,  several 
species  growing  wild  on  the  desert's  edge.  Even  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions  of  the  far  West,  where  other  fruits  must  always 
be  irrigated,  the  grape  often  grows  well  without  artificial  water- 
ing. Irrigation  is  practiced  in  vineyards  in  the  United  States 
only  on  the  Pacific  slope  and  here  the  practice  is  not  as  general 
as  with  other  fruit  crops.  Whether  the  grape  shall  be  grown 


96          MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

under  irrigation  or  not  is  a  local  and  often  an  individual  ques- 
tion answered  with  regard  to  several  conditions;  as  the  local 
rainfall,  the  depth  and  character  of  the  soil,  the  cost  of  water 
and  ease  of  irrigation.  These  conditions  are  all  correlated  and 
make  about  the  most  complex  and  difficult  problem  the  growers 
of  grapes  in  semi-arid  regions  have  to  solve.  As  long,  however, 
as  the  grape-grower  can  grow  fairly  vigorous  vines  and  harvest 
a  fairly  bountiful  crop  by  natural  rainfall,  he  should  not  irri- 
gate ;  for,  even  though  the  crop  offsets  the  cost,  there  are  several 
objections  to  growing  grapes  under  irrigation.  The  vines  are 
subject  to  more  diseases  and  physiological  troubles ;  the  fruit 
is  said  to  lack  aroma  and  flavor ;  grapes  grown  on  irrigated 
land  do  not  stand  shipment  well,  the  unduly  inflated  grapes 
often  bursting;  wine-makers  do  not  like  irrigated  grapes  as 
well  as  those  from  non-irrigated  lands;  and  watery  grapes 
from  irrigated  lands  make  inferior  raisins.  It  is  maintained, 
however,  with  a  show  of  reason,  that  grapes  suffer  in  irrigated 
vineyards  in  the  ways  set  forth  only  when  the  vines  are  over- 
or  improperly  irrigated. 


PQ 


B 


CHAPTER  VI 
FERTILIZERS   FOR   GRAPES 

As  regards  fertilizers,  the  grape-grower  has  much  to  learn 
and  in  learning  he  must  approach  the  problem  with  humility 
of  mind.  For  in  his  experimenting,  which  is  the  best  way  to 
learn,  he  will  no  sooner  arrive  at  what  seems  to  be  a  certain 
conclusion,  than  another  season's  results  or  the  yields  in  an 
adjoining  vineyard  will  upset  the  findings  of  past  seasons  and 
those  obtained  in  other  places.  Unfortunately,  there  is  little 
real  knowledge  to  be  obtained  on  the  subject,  for  grape-growers 
have  not  yet  broken  away  from  time-worn  dictums  in  regard 
to  fertilizers  and  still  follow  recommendations  drawn  from  work 
with  truck  and  field  crops.  This  is  excused  by  the  fact  that 
there  have  been  almost  no  comprehensive  experiments  in  the 
country  with  fertilizers  for  grapes. 

No  fallacies  die  harder  than  the  pronouncements  of  chemists 
a  generation  ago  that  fertilizing  consists  in  putting  in  the  soil 
approximately  that  which  the  plants  take  out;  and  that  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  crop  affords  the  necessary  guide 
to  fertilizing.  These  two  theories  are  the  basis  of  nearly  every 
recommendation  that  can  be  found  for  the  use  of  fertilizers  in 
growing  crops.  The  facts  applied  to  the  grape,  however,  are 
that  the  average  tillable  soil  contains  a  hundred  or  a  thousand 
times  more  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  plants  than  the 
grape  can  possibly  take  from  the  soil ;  and  many  experiments 
in  supplying  food  to  plants  show  that  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  plant  is  not  a  safe  guide  to  their  fertilizer  require- 
H  97 


98  MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ments.  Later  teachings  in  regard  to  the  use  of  fertilizers  are : 
That  the  quantity  of  mineral  food  in  a  soil  may  be  of  far  less 
importance  than  the  quantity  of  water,  and  that  the  cultivator 
should  make  certain  that  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  his 
land  so  that  the  mineral  salts  may  be  readily  dissolved  and 
so  become  available  as  plant-food;  that  far  too  much  im- 
portance has  been  attached  to  putting  chemicals  in  the  soil 
and  too  little  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  whereby 
the  work  of  bacteria  and  the  solvent  action  of  organic  acids 
may  make  available  plant-food  that  without  these  agencies  is 
unavailable. 

These  brief  and  simple  statements  introduce  to  grape-growers 
some  of  the  problems  with  which  they  must  deal  in  fertilizing 
grapes,  and  show  what  a  complex  problem  of  chemistry,  physics 
and  biology  fertilizing  the  soil  is ;  how  difficult  experimental 
work  in  this  field  is ;  and  how  cautious  workers  must  be  in  inter- 
preting results  of  either  experiment  or  experience.  An  account 
of  an  experiment  in  fertilizing  a  vineyard  may  make  even  more 
plain  the  difficulties  in  carrying  on  experiments  in  fertilizing 
fruits  and  the  caution  that  must  be  observed  in  drawing  con- 
clusions. 

AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  FERTILIZING  GRAPES 

The  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  experi- 
menting with  fertilizers  for  grapes  at  Fredonia,  Chautauqua 
County,  the  chief  grape  region  in  eastern  America.  The  ex- 
periment should  be  of  interest  to  every  grape-grower  from 
several  points  of  view.  It  not  only  shows  that  there  are  many 
and  difficult  problems  in  fertilizing  grapes,  but  also  the  results 
of  the  use  of  manure,  commercial  fertilizers  and  cover-crops  in 
a  particular  vineyard ;  it  suggests  the  fertilizers  to  be  used  and 
the  methods  of  use ;  and  it  furnishes  a  plan  for  an  experiment 
by  grape-growers  who  want  to  try  such  an  experiment  and 


FERTILIZERS   FOR   GRAPES  99 

draw  their  own  conclusions.     An  account  of  the  experiment 
and  the  results  for  the  first  five  years  follows  : l 

Tests  at  Fredonia. 

"In  the  vineyard  at  Fredonia  eleven  plats  were  laid  out  in  a 
section  of  the  vineyard  where  inequalities  of  soil  and  other  con- 
ditions were  slight  or  were  neutralized.  Each  plat  included 
three  rows  (about  one-sixth  of  an  acre)  and  was  separated 
from  the  adjoining  plats  by  a  'buffer'  row  not  under  test. 
One  plat  in  the  center  of  the  section  served  as  a  check,  and  five 
different  fertilizer  combinations  were  used  on  duplicate  plats 
at  either  side  of  the  check.  Plats  1  and  7  received  lime  and  a 
complete  fertilizer  with  quick-acting  and  slow-acting  nitrogen ; 
Plats  2  and  8  received  the  complete  fertilizer  but  no  lime ;  on 
Plats  3  and  9  potash  was  omitted  from  the  complete  fertilizer 
combination;  Plats  4  and  10  received  no  phosphorus;  Plats 
5  and  11,  no  nitrogen ;  and  Plat  6  was  the  check.  The  materials 
were  applied  at  such  rates  that  they  provided  for  the  first  year 
72  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  25  pounds  of  phosphorus  and 
59  pounds  of  potassium;  and  for  each  of  the  last  four  years 
two-thirds  as  much  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  and  eight-ninths 
as  much  potassium.  The  lime  was  applied  the  first  and  fourth 
years  in  quantity  to  make  a  ton  to  the  acre  annually.  Cover- 
crops  were  sown  on  all  plats  alike  and  were  plowed  under  in 
late  April  or  early  May  of  each  year.  These  differed  in  suc- 
cessive years,  but  included  no  legumes.  The  crops  used  were 
rye,  wheat,  barley  and  cowhorn  turnips  separately  and  the 
last  two  in  combination. 

"The  cultivation  differed  only  in  thoroughness  from  that 
generally  used  in  the  Belt,  the  aim  being  to  maintain  a  good 
dust  mulch  during  the  whole  growing  season.  Pruning  by 
the  Chautauqua  System  was  done  throughout  by  one  man, 
who  pruned  solely  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  individual 
1  Quoted  from  Bui.  No.  381,  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


100 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


vines  and  left  four,  two  or  three,  or  no  fruiting  canes  as 
appeared  best.  The  vineyard  was  thoroughly  sprayed,  all 
plats  alike. 

"Low  winter  temperatures,  affecting  immature  wood  and 
buds  caused  by  unfavorable  weather  of  the  previous  season, 
reduced  yields  materially  during  two  of  the  five  years,  and 
practically  neutralized  any  anticipated  benefit  from  fertilizers. 
Following  the  first  of  these  low-crop  years,  came  a  season, 
1911,  in  which  favorable  conditions,  acting  upon  vines  left 
undiminished  in  vigor  by  the  light  crop  of  the  previous 
year  resulted  in  heavy  and  quite  uniform  yields  on  all 
the  plats. 

"  The  yields  for  the  five  years  are  shown  in  Table  I ;  and  a 
summary  showing  the  average  gains  from  each  treatment  is 
given  in  Table  II,  with  the  average  financial  balance  after  de- 
ducting the  cost  of  fertilizer  application  from  the  increased 
returns  from  the  plats  receiving  them. 

TABLE    I.  —  YIELD    OF   GRAPES    (TONS    PER   ACRE)    IN   FERTILIZER 

EXPERIMENTS 


Plat. 
No. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

5-  year 
average 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

Complete  fertilizer  ;  lime 
Complete  fertilizer    . 
Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 
Nitrogen  and  potash 
Phosphorus  and  potash 
Check 

Tons 

4.48 
4.76 
5.17 
4.25 
3.41 
3  38 

Tons 

2.10 
2.21 
2.14 
2.55 
2.00 
2  10 

Tons 

5.37 
5.71 
5.61 
5.64 
5.44 
5.32 

Tons 

3.46 
4.30 
4.00 
4.10 
4.35 
3.60 

Tons 

2.14 
2.83 
2.25 

2.85 
1.78 
1.24 

Tons 

3.51 
3.96 
3.83 
3.87 
3.39 
3.12 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

Complete  fertilizer  ;  lime 
Complete  fertilizer     .     . 
Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 
Nitrogen  and  potash 
Phosphorus  and  potash 

4.69 
4.66 
4.99 
4.79 
4.99 

2.38 
2.07 
2.04 
2.26 

1.87 

5.62 
5.71 
5.35 
5.91 
5.03 

4.80 
4.98 
4.89 
4.89 
4.21 

3.04 
2.72 
2.61 
3.07 
1.97 

4.10 
4.02 
3.97 
4.18 
3.61 

FERTILIZERS    FOR    GRAPES  '-  ^^ >'      101 


TABLE  II.  —  AVERAGE   INCREASE  IN  GRAPE   YIELDS   AND  AVERAGE 
FINANCIAL  GAIN  FROM  FERTILIZER  APPLICATIONS 

N  =  nitrogen,  P  =  phosphorus,  K  =  potassium,  Ca  =  lime. 
Gains  in  tons  per  acre. 


N,  P,  K, 
Ca. 

N,  P,  K. 

N,  P. 

N,  K. 

P,  K. 

First  plat  of  pair 
Second  plat  of  pair    . 

Average     .     .     . 
Check  plat        .     .     . 

Average  gain 
Average  financial  gain 

Tons 

3.51 
4.10 

Tons 
3.96 

4.02 

Tons 

3.83 
3.97 

Tons 

3.87 
4.18 

Tons 

3.39 
3.61 

3.80 
3,12 

3.97 
3.12 

3.90 
3.12 

4.02 
3.12 

3.50 
3.12 

.68 

$5.82 

.85 
$13.84 

.78 
$14.05 

.90 

$18.54 

.38 
$6,99 

From  this  last  table  the  benefit  from  nitrogen  appears  quite 
evident  since  every  combination  in  which  it  appears  gives  a 
substantial  gain  over  the  one  from  which  it  is  absent.  Phos- 
phorus and  potassium  without  the  nitrogen,  lead  to  only  a 
slight  increase  over  the  check ;  and  lime  appears  to  be  of  no 
benefit.  Financially,  the  complete  fertilizer  and  lime  com 
bination,  the  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  combination  and  the 
phosphorus  and  potassium  combination  failed  to  pay  their  cost 
in  five  of  the  ten  comparisons ;  the  complete  fertilizer  was  used 
at  a  loss  four  times  out  of  ten ;  and  the  nitrogen  and  potas- 
sium combination  three  times  out  of  ten.  Lime  had  no 
appreciable  effect  on  either  vines  or  fruit. 

"No  effect  of  the  fertilizers  on  the  fruit  itself,  aside  from 
yield,  was  shown  for  the  first  three  years ;  but  in  1912,  and  even 
more  markedly  in  1913,  the  fruit  from  the  plats  on  which 
nitrogen  had  been  used  was  superior  in  compactness  of  cluster, 
size  of  cluster  and  size  of  berry.  In  1912  also,  when  early  ripen- 
ing was  a  decided  advantage,  the  fruit  on  the  nitrogen  plats 
matured  earlier  than  that  on  the  check  plats.  In  1913  the 


102 


MAKV'AL'VF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


favorable  ripening  season  and  the  smaller  crop  tended  to 
equalize  the  time  of  ripening  on  all  plats.  The  grapes  on  the 
phosphorus-potassium  plats  were  better  in  quality  than  those 
in  the  check  plats  but  not  as  good  as  those  on  the  plats  where 
nitrogen  was  used. 

"Other  indexes  also  show  plainly  the  benefit  from  nitrogen 
in  this  vineyard ;  for  size  and  weight  of  leaf,  weight  of  wood 
produced  and  number  of  fruiting  canes  left  on  the  vines  were 
all  greater  where  fertilizers,  and  particularly  nitrogen,  had  been 
used.  The  three-year  averages  (1911-1913)  of  the  measure- 
ments for  these  characteristics  are  shown  in  Table  III : 

TABLE    III.  —  COMPARATIVE   PRODUCTION    OF    LEAVES,    WOOD    AND 
FRUITING  CANES  ON  GRAPE  VINES  DIFFERENTLY  FERTILIZED 

(Averages  for  three  years.) 


FERTILIZER  APPLICATION 

LEAF  WEIGHT1 

WOOD  PRUNED  2 

FRUITING 
CANES  LEFT* 

Grams. 

Lbs. 

Complete  fertilizer  ;  lime      .     . 

1,033 

1,295 

2,468 

Complete  fertilizer       .... 

1,010 

1,367 

2,609 

Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 

1,047 

1,272 

2,585 

Nitrogen  and  potassium 

1,069 

1,401 

2,646 

Phosphorus  and  potassium 

964 

1,086 

2,326 

Check   

930 

915 

2,110 

Cooperative  experiments. 

"In  order  to  secure  information  as  to  the  behavior  of  fertilizers 
on  the  different  soils  of  the  Grape  Belt,  cooperative  tests  were 
carried  on  in  six  vineyards  owned,  respectively,  by  S.  S.  Gran- 
din,  Westfield ;  Hon.  C.  M.  Hamilton,  State  Line;  James  Lee, 
Brocton;  H.  S.  Miner,  Dunkirk;  Miss  Frances  Jennings,  Sil- 


1  Each  weight  is  of  300  green  leaves,  5  from  each  of  60  vines, 
first  leaf  beyond  the  last  cluster  was  selected. 

2  Amount  to  the  acre  of  wood  pruned  in  fall. 

3  Number  to  the  acre. 


The 


FERTILIZERS   FOR   GRAPES  103 

ver  Creek;  and  J.  T.  Barnes,  Prospect  Station.  The  soil  in 
these  vineyards  included  gravelly  loam,  shale  loam  and  clay 
loam,  all  in  the  Dunkirk  series,  and  the  experiments  covered 
from  two  to  two  and  a  half  acres  in  three  cases  and  about  five 
acres  in  each  of  the  other  vineyards.  The  work  continued  four 
years  in  all  but  one  of  the  experiments,  which  it  was  necessary 
to  end  after  the  second  year. 

"The  general  plan  of  the  tests  was  much  like  that  at  Fre- 
donia  in  most  of  the  vineyards,  with  the  additions  of  plats  for 
stable  manure  and  for  leguminous  and  non-leguminous  cover 
crops  with  and  without  lime.  From  two  to  six  check  plats 
were  left  for  comparison  in  each  vineyard.  As  already  stated 
the  results  were  often  inconsistent  in  duplicate  plats  in  the 
same  vineyard,  and  if  one  test  appeared  to  point  definitely  in  a 
certain  direction,  the  indication  would  be  negatived  by  results 
in  other  vineyards.  In  these  experiments  the  yield  of  fruit 
was  the  only  index  to  the  effect  of  treatments  as  it  was  not  possi- 
ble to  weigh  leaves  or  pruned  wood,  or  to  count  the  canes  left. 

"Nitrogen  and  potassium  in  combination,  which  gave  the 
largest  gains  and  greatest  profit  in  the  Station  vineyard  at 
Fredonia,  showed  a  13  per  ct.  increase  in  yield  on  one  plat  in 
the, Jennings  vineyard  and  a  9  per  ct.  decrease  on  the  other; 
in  the  Miner  vineyard  this  combination  apparently  resulted  in 
a  25  per  ct.  increase ;  in  the  Lee  vineyard  in  a  2%  per  ct.  loss ; 
in  the  Hamilton  vineyard  a  17  per  ct.  gain ;  and  in  the  Grandin 
vineyard  neither  gain  nor  loss.  In  only  two  of  the  five  vine- 
yards in  which  this  combination  was  tested  was  the  gain  great 
enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer  applied.  Similar  dis- 
crepancies, or  absence  of  profitable  gain,  'friark  the  use  of  the 
other  fertilizer  combinations. 

"Even  stable  manure,  the  standby  of  the  farmer  and  fruit- 
grower, when  applied  at  the  rate  of  five  tons  per  acre  each 
spring,  and  plowred  in,  did  not,  on  the  average,  pay  for  itself. 
Indeed,  there  were  few  instances  among  the  60  comparisons 


104        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

possible,  in  which  more  than  a  very  moderate  profit  could  be 
credited  to  manure.  The  average  increase  in  yield  following 
the  application  of  manure  alone  was  less  than  a  quarter  of  a 
ton  of  grapes  to  the  acre ;  while  .the  use  of  lime  with  the  manure 
increased  the  gain  to  one-third  of  a  ton  per  acre.  The  ton  of 
lime  to  the  acre  annually  would  not  be  paid  for  by  the  gain  of 
175  pounds  of  grapes.  Cover-crops  were  used  in  five  of  the 
six  cooperative  experiments  and  proved  even  less  adapted  to 
increasing  crop  yields  than  did  the  manure.  There  was  no  ap- 
preciable gain,  on  the  average,  from  the  use  of  mammoth  clover ; 
indeed,  a  slight  loss  must  be  recorded  for  the  clover  except  upon 
the  plats  which  were  also  limed,  and  even  with  the  lime  the 
average  yields  on  check  plats  and  mammoth  clover  plats 
differed  by  only  one  one-hundredth  of  a  ton.  Wheat  or  barley 
with  cowhorn  turnips  made  a  slightly  better  showing,  as  the 
plats  on  which  these  crops  were  turned  under,  without  lime, 
averaged  about  one-twentieth  of  a  ton  to  the  acre  better  than 
the  checks.  With  these  non-legumes,  lime  was  apparently  a 
detriment,  as  the  plants  with  the  lime  yielded  a  tenth  of  a  ton 
less,  on  the  average,  than  those  without  it." 

Practical  lessons  from  the  Fredonia  experiment. 

From  this  experiment  it  becomes  clear  that  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers in  a  vineyard  is  a  local  problem.  General  advice  is  of 
little  value.  It  is  evident  also  that  the  fertilization  of  vine- 
yards is  so  involved  with  other  factors  that  only  carefully 
planned  and  long  continued  work  will  give  reliable  information 
as  to  the  needs  of  vines.  Indeed,  field  experiments  even  in 
carefully  selected  vineyards,  as  the  cooperative  experiments 
show,  may  be  so  contradictory  and  misleading  as  to  be  worse 
than  useless,  if  deductions  are  made  from  the  results  of  a  few 
seasons.  The  experiment,  however,  has  brought  forth  informa- 
tion about  fertilizing  vineyards  that  ought  to  be  most  helpful 
to  grape-growers.  Thus,  the  results  suggest : 


FERTILIZERS   FOR   GRAPES  105 

Only  vineyards  in  good  condition  respond  to  fertilizers. 

It  is  usually  waste  to  make  applications  of  fertilizers  in 
poorly  drained  vineyards,  in  such  as  suffer  from  winter  cold 
or  spring  frosts,  where  insect  pests  are  epidemic  and  uncon- 
trolled or  where  good  care  is  lacking.  The  experiments  fur- 
nish several  examples  of  inertness,  ineffectiveness  or  failure  to 
produce  profit  when  the  fertilizers  were  applied  under  any  of 
the  conditions  named.  They  emphasize  the  importance  of  pay- 
ing attention  to  all  of  the  factors  on  which  plant  growth  is  de- 
pendent. Moisture,  soil  temperature,  aeration,  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  freedom  from  pests,  cold  and  frosts,  as  well  as  the 
supply  of  food  may  limit  the  yield  of  grapes. 

A  vineyard  soil  may  have  a  one-sided  wear. 

It  is  certain  in  some  of  the  experiments  and  strongly  indi- 
cated in  others  that  the  soil  is  having  a  one-sided  wear  —  that 
only  one  or  a  very  few  of  the  elements  of  fertility  are  lacking. 
The  element  most  frequently  lacking  is  nitrogen.  Exception 
will  probably  be  found  in  very  light  sands  or  gravels  which 
are  often  deficient  in  potash  and  the  phosphates;  or  on  soils 
so  shallow  or  of  such  mechanical  texture  that  the  root  range  of 
the  vine  is  limited ;  or  in  soils  so  wet  or  so  dry  as  to  limit  the 
root  range  or  prevent  biological  activities.  These  exceptions 
mean,  as  a  rule,  that  the  soils  possessing  the  unfavorable  qual- 
ities are  unfitted  for  grape-growing.  The  grape-grower  should 
try  to  discover  which  of  the  fertilizing  elements  his  soil  lacks 
and  not  waste  by  using  elements  not  needed. 

Grape  soils  are  often  uneven. 

The  marked  unevenness  of  the  soil  in  the  seven  vineyards 
in  which  these  experiments  were  carried  on,  as  indicated  by  the 
crops  and  the  effects  of  the  fertilizers,  furnishes  food  for  thought 
to  grape-growers.  Maximum  profits  cannot  be  approached 


106        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

in  vineyards  in  which  the  soil  is  as  uneven  as  in  these,  which 
were  in  every  case  selected  because  there  was  an  appearance 
of  uniformity.  A  problem  before  grape-growers  is  to  make 
uniform  all  conditions  in  their  vineyards,  and  the  vines  must 
be  kept  free  from  pests  if  fertilizers  are  to  be  profitably  used. 

How  a  grape-grower  may  know  when  his  vines  need  fertilizers. 

A  grape-grower  may  assume  that  his  vines  do  not  need  fer- 
tilizers if  they  are  vigorous  and  making  a  fair  annual  growth. 
When  the  vineyard  is  found  to  be  failing  in  vigor,  the  first  step 
to  be  taken  is  to  make  sure  that  the  drainage  is  good  ;  the  second 
step,  to  control  insect  and  fungous  pests;  the  third,  to  give 
tillage  and  good  care ;  and  the  fourth  step  is  to  apply  fertilizers 
if  they  be  found  necessary.  Few  vineyards  will  be  found  to 
require  a  complete  fertilizer.  What  the  special  requirements 
of  a  vineyard  are  can  be  ascertained  only  by  experiment  and 
are  probably  not  ascertainable  by  analyses  of  the  soil.  This 
experiment  furnishes  suggestions  as  to  how  the  grape-grower 
may  test  the  value  of  fertilizers  in  his  own  vineyard. 

Applying  fertilizers. 

When  it  is  certain  that  vines  need  fertilization,  and  what  is 
wanted  is  known,  the  fertilizers  should  be  put  on  in  the  spring 
and  be  worked  in  by  the  spring  cultivation.  Stable  manure 
should  be  plowed  under.  Grape  roots  forage  throughout  the 
whole  top  layer  of  soil  so  that  the  land  should  be  covered  writh 
the  fertilizer,  whether  chemical  or  barnyard  manure.  Applica- 
tions of  commercial  fertilizers  are  generally  spread  broadcast, 
though  it  is  better  to  drill  them  in  if  the  foliage  is  out  on  the 
vines  and  thus  avoid  possible  injury  to  tender  foliage.  Com- 
mercial fertilizers  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  and  in  a  finely 
divided  state.  In  leachy  soils,  nitrate  of  soda  ought  not  to  be 
applied  too  early  in  the  season,  as  it  will  quickly  wash  dowrn 
out  of  reach  of  the  grape  roots. 


PLATE  VIII.  —  Brighton  (Xf). 


FERTILIZERS    FOR    GRAPES  107 

Over-rich  soils. 

Some  soils  are  too  rich  for  the  grape.  On  these  the  growth  is 
over-luxuriant,  the  wood  does  not  mature  in  the  autumn,  fruit- 
buds  do  not  form  and  the  fruit  is  poor  in  quality.  Certain 
varieties  can  stand  a  richer  soil  than  others.  Over-richness  is 
a  trouble  that  may  cure  itself  as  the  vines  come  in  full  bearing 
and  make  greater  demands  on  the  soil  for  food.  It  is  well, 
however,  on  a  soil  that  is  suspected  of  being  too  rich  or  so 
proved  by  the  behavior  of  the  vines,  to  provide  an  extra  wire 
on  the  trellis,  to  prune  little  and  thus  take  care  of  the  rampant 
growth.  Some  soils,  however,  and  this  is  often  the  case,  are 
so  rich  that  the  grape  cannot  be  made  to  thrive  in  them ;  the 
vines  waste  their  substance  in  riotous  living,  producing  luxuri- 
ant foliage  and  lusty  wood  but  little  or  no  fruit. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PRUNING   THE   GRAPE   IN   EASTERN  AMERICA 

THE  inexperienced  look  on  pruning  as  a  difficult  operation 
in  grape-growing.  But  once  a  few  fundamentals  are  grasped, 
grape-pruning  is  not  difficult.  There  is  much  less  perplexity 
in  pruning  the  grape  than  in  pruning  tree-fruits.  Pruning  fol- 
lows accepted  patterns  in  every  grape  region,  and  when  the 
pattern  is  learned  the  difficulties  are  easily  overcome.  The 
inexperienced  are  confused  by  the  array  of  "  principles/' 
"types/'  " methods/'  "systems"  and  the  many  technical 
terms  that  enter  into  discussions  of  grape-pruning.  Some  of 
the  technicalities  come  from  European  practices,  and  others 
originated  in  the  infancy  of  grape-growing  in  this  country  when 
there  was  great  diversity  in  pruning.  Divested  of  much  that 
is  but  jargon,  an  inexperienced  man  can  easily  learn  in  a  few 
lessons,  from  word  of  mouth  or  printed  page,  how  to  prune 
grapes. 

The  simplicity  of  pruning  has  led  to  slighting  the  work  in 
commercial  vineyards,  by  too  often  trusting  it  to  unskilled 
hands.  Then,  too,  in  this  age  of  power-propelled  tools,  pride 
in  hand  labor  has  been  left  behind,  and  few  grape-growers 
now  take  time  and  trouble  to  become  expert  in  pruning. 
Simple  as  the  work  may  seem  to  those  long  accustomed 
to  it,  he  who  wants  to  put  into  his  pruning  painstaking  intel- 
ligence and  to  taste  the  joy  of  a  task  well  done  finds  in  this 

108 


PRUNING   THE   GRAPE   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     109 

vineyard  operation  an  ample  field  for  pleasure  and  for  the  de- 
velopment of  greater  profits.  The  price  to  be  paid  by  those 
who  would  thus  attempt  perfection  in  pruning  the  vine  is 
forward  vision,  the  mechanic's  eye,  the  gardener's  touch, 
patience,  and  pride  in  handicraft. 

Simple  as  pruning  is,  the  pruner  soon  learns  that  it  is  an  art 
in  which  perfection  is  better  known  in  mind  than  followed  in 
deed.  The  theory  is  easy  but  there  are  some  stumbling  blocks 
to  make  its  consummation  difficult.  It  is  an  art  in  which 
rules  do  not  suffice,  for  no  two  vineyards  can  be  pruned  alike 
in  amount  or  method,  and  every  grape-grower  finds  his  vine- 
yard a  proper  field  for  the  gratification  of  his  taste  in  pruning. 
Happily,  however,  enlightened  theory  and  sound  practice  are 
in  perfect  accord  in  grape-pruning,  so  that  specific  advice  is 
well  founded  on  governing  principles. 

One  cannot,  of  course,  learn  to  prune  unless  he  understands 
the  habit  of  the  grape-vine  and  is  familiar  with  the  terms  ap- 
plied to  the  different  parts  of  the  vine.  As  a  preliminary  to 
this  chapter,  therefore,  knowledge  of  Chapter  XVII,  in  which 
the  structure  of  the  grape-vine  is  discussed,  is  necessary.  The 
next  step  is  to  distinguish  between  pruning  and  training. 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  DISTINGUISHED 

The  grape  is  pruned  to  increase  in  various  w^iys  the  economic 
value  of  the  plant  by  increasing  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
crop.  This  is  pruning  proper.  Or  grapes  are  pruned  to  make 
well-proportioned  plants  with  the  parts  so  disposed  that  the 
vines  are  to  the  highest  degree  manageable  in  the  vineyard. 
This  is  training.  To  repeat,  the  grape-plant  is  pruned  to  regu- 
late the  crop ;  it  is  trained  to  regulate  the  vine.  Grape-grow- 
ers usually  speak  of  both  operations  as  "pruning/'  but  it  is 
better  to  keep  in  mind  the  two  conceptions.  The  distinctions 
between  pruning  and  training  must  be  made  more  apparent  by 


110        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

setting  forth  in  greater  detail  the  results  attained  by  the  two 
operations. 

Results  attained  in  pruning  to  regulate  the  crop. 

Proper  pruning  of  vines  in  their  first  year  in  the  vineyard, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  consists  of  cutting  the  young  plants 
back  severely,  brings  the  vines  in  productive  bearing  a  year  or 
two  years  earlier  than  they  would  have  borne  had  the  pruning 
been  neglected.  This  early  pruning,  since  it  is  done  with  an  eye 
to  the  vigor  of  each  vine,  insures  greater  uniformity  in  the  growth 
and  productiveness  of  the  vineyard.  Uniformity  thus  brought 
about  is  important  not  only  for  the  time  being,  but  for  the  fu- 
ture development  of  the  vines,  since  weak  vines,  if  unpruned, 
are  stunted  and  may  require  years  to  overtake  more  vigorous 
vines  in  the  vineyard. 

The  quality  of  the  crop  may  be  regulated  by  pruning.  When 
vines  bear  too  heavily,  the  grapes  are  small,  and  wine-makers 
have  found  that  they  seldom  develop  sugar  and  flavor  as  do 
grapes  on  vines  not  overbearing.  Grapes  on  vines  too  heavily 
laden  seldom  ripen  or  color  well.  Not  only  are  the  grapes  on 
poorly  pruned  and  unpruned  vines  poor  in  quality  but  the 
grapes  on  such  vines  are  usually  not  well  distributed  and  there- 
fore ripen  and  color  unevenly.  The  results  just  mentioned 
follow  because  the  bunches  in  a  poorly  distributed  crop  receive 
varying  amounts*of  light  and  heat  depending  on  the  distance 
from  the  ground,  the  distance  from  the  trunk  and  on  the  amount 
of  shade. 

Pruning  may  be  used  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  grapes 
borne  in  a  vineyard  and  so  be  made  somewhat  helpful  in  pre- 
venting alternate  bearing.  Abnormally  large  crops  are  usually 
followed  by  partial  crop  failure  and  biennial  bearing  some- 
times sets  in,  but  the  large  crop  may  be  reduced  by  pruning 
and  the  evil  consequences  wholly  or  partly  avoided.  It  fol- 
lows that  pruning  must  depend  much  on  the  vigor  of  the  vine ; 


PRUNING    THE    GRAPE   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     111 

for  a  weak  vine  may  be  so  pruned  as  to  cause  it  to  overbear ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  vigorous  vine  pruned  in  the  same  way 
might  not  bear  at  all. 

Results  attained  in  pruning  to  regulate  the  cine. 

It  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  shape  of  the  vine  by  training 
so  that  tilling,  spraying,  pruning  and  harvesting  can  be  easily 
performed  and  the  crop  be  kept  off  the  ground.  The  cost  of 
production  is  always  less  in  a  well-pruned  vineyard  because  all 
vineyard  operations  are  more  easily  carried  out. 

The  life  of  a  vineyard  is  lengthened  when  the  vines  are  well 
trained,  because  when  the  parts  of  a  vine  are  properly  disposed 
on  trellis  or  stake  the  plants  are  less  often  injured  in  vineyard 
operations.  Moreover,  not  infrequently  vines  die  from  over- 
production and  consequent  breaking  of  canes  or  trunks  which 
might  have  be.en  prevented  by  pruning  to  shape  the  vine. 
Suckers  and  water-sprouts  are  less  common  on  wTell-trained 
vines.  It  is  necessary,  too,  by  training  to  keep  the  bunches 
away  from  trunk,  canes  and  other  bunches  and  so  prevent 
injury  to  the  grapes. 

Lastly,  fashion,  taste  or  a  more  or  less  abnormal  use  of  the 
grapes,  may  prescribe  the  form  in  which  a  vine  is  trained. 
Fashion  and  taste  run  from  very  simple  or  natural  styles  to 
exceedingly  complex,  formal  ones,  depending,  often,  on  the 
variety,  the  environment  or  other  condition,  but  just  as  often 
on  the  whim  of  the  grape-grower.  The  grape  is  a  favorite  orna- 
mental for  fences,  arbors  and  to  cover  buildings ;  for  all  of 
these  purposes  the  vines  must  be  trained  as  occasion  calls. 

SOME  PRINCIPLES  OF  PRUNING 

Leaving  the  shaping  of  the  plant  out  of  consideration  and 
having  in  mind  pruning  proper,  all  efforts  in  pruning  are  di- 
rected toward  two  objects :  (1)  The  production  of  leafy  shoots 


112         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  plant.  (2)  The  promotion  of  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds.  The  first,  in  common  parlance,  is 
pruning  for  wood ;  the  second,  pruning  for  fruit. 

Pruning  for  ivood. 

Some  grapes,  in  common  with  varieties  of  all  fruits,  produce 
excessive  crops  of  fruit  so  that  the  plants  exhaust  themselves, 
to  their  permanent  injury  and  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop. 
Something  must  be  done  to  restore  and  increase  vegetative 
vigor.  The  most  natural  procedure  is  to  lessen  the  struggle  for 
existence  among  the  parts  of  the  plant.  The  richer  and  the 
more  abundant  the  supply  of  the  food  solution,  the  greater 
the  vegetative  activity,  the  larger  the  leaves  and  the  larger  and 
stouter  the  internodes.  Obviously,  the  supply  of  food  solu- 
tion for  each  bud  may  be  increased  by  decreasing  the  number  of 
buds.  The  weaker  the  plants,  therefore,  the .  more  the  vine 
should  be  cut.  The  severe  pruning  in  the  first  two  years  of  the 
vine's  existence  is  an  example  of  pruning  for  wood.  The  vine 
is  pruned  for  wood  in  the  resting  period  between  the  fall  of  leaf 
and  the  swelling  of  buds  the  following  spring. 

Pruning  for  fruit. 

Growers  of  all  fruits  soon  learn  that  excessive  vegetative 
vigor  is  not  usually  accompanied  by  fruitfulness.  Too  great 
vigor  is  indicated  by  long,  leafy,  unbranching  shoots.  Some 
fruit-growers  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  fruitfulness  is  inversely 
proportionate  to  vegetative  vigor.  There  are  several  methods 
of  diminishing  the  vigor  of  the  vine ;  as,  withholding  water 
and  fertilizers,  stopping  tillage,  the  method  of  training  and  by 
pruning.  Pruning  is  used  to  decrease  the  vigor  of  the  vine, 
in  theory  at  least,  for  the  practice  is  not  always  so  successful, 
by  pruning  the  roots  or  by  summer-pruning  the  shoots. 

Root-pruning  the  grape  at  intervals  of  several  years  is  a 
regular  practice  with  some  varieties  in  warm  countries,  Eu- 


PRUNING   THE   GRAPE  IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     113 

rope  more  especially,  but  is  seldom  or  never  practiced  in  Amer- 
ica except  when  planting  and  when  roots  arise  from  the  cion 
above  the  union  of  stock  and  cion. 

Summer-pruning  to  induce  fruitfulness  consists  in  removing 
new  shoots  with  newly  developed  leaves.  These  young  shoots 
have  been  developed  from  reserve  material  stored  up  the  pre- 
ceding season,  and  until  they  are  so  far  developed  that  they  can 
perform  the  functions  of  leaves  they  are  to  be  counted  as  para- 
sites. When,  therefore,  these  shoots  are  pruned  or  pinched 
away,  the  plant  is  robbed  of  the  material  used  by  the  lusty  shoot 
which  up  to  this  time  has  given  nothing  in  return.  The  vigor 
of  the  plant  is  thus  checked  and  fruitfulness  increased.  Sum- 
mer-pruning may  become  harmful  if  delayed  too  long.  The 
time  to  prune  is  past  with  the  grape  when  the  leaves  have  passed 
from  the  light  green  color  of  new  growth  to  the  dark  green  of 
mature  leaves. 

Fruit-bearing  may  be  augmented  by  bending,  twisting  or 
ringing  the  canes,  since  all  of  these  operations  diminish  vegeta- 
tive vigor.  Ringing  is  the  only  one  of  these  methods  in  general 
use,  and  this  only  for  some  special  variety  or  special  purpose, 
and  usually  with  the  result  that  the  vigor  of  the  vine  is  dimin- 
ished too  much  for  the  good  of  the  plant.  Ringing  is  discussed 
more  fully  in  Chapter  XVI. 

The  manner  of  fruit-bearing  in  the  grape. 

Before  attempting  to  prune,  the  pruner  must  understand 
precisely  how  the  grape  bears  its  crop.  The  fruit  is  borne  near 
the  base  of  the  shoots  of  the  current  season,  and  the  shoots  are 
borne  on  the  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth  coming  from 
a  dormant  bud.  Here  is  manifested  one  of  Nature's  energy- 
saving  devices,  shoot,  leaves,  flowers  and  fruit  spring  in  a  short 
season  from  a  single  bud.  In  the  light  of  this  fact,  pruning 
should  be  looked  on  as  a  simple  problem  to  be  solved  mathe- 
matically and  not  as  a  puzzle  to  be  untangled,  as  so  many  re- 


114        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

gard  it.     For  an  example,  a  problem  in  pruning  is  here  stated 
and  solved. 

A  thrifty  grape-vine  should  yield,  let  us  say,  fifteen  pounds 
of  grapes,  a  fair  average  for  the  mainstay  varieties.  Each  bunch 
will  weigh  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  pound.  To  produce  fifteen 
pounds  on  a  vine,  therefore,  will  require  from  thirty  to  sixty 
bunches.  As  each  shoot  will  bear  two  or  three  bunches,  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  buds  must  be  left  on  the  canes  of  the  preceding- 
year.  These  buds  are  selected  in  pruning  on  one  or  more  canes 
distributed  on  one  or  two  main  stems  in  such  manner  as  the 
pruner  may  choose,  but  usually  in  accordance  with  one  or 
another  of  several  well-developed  methods  of  training.  Prun- 
ing, then,  consists  in  calculating  the  number  of  bunches  and 
buds  necessary  and  removing  the  remainder.  In  essence 
pruning  is  thinning. 

Horizontal  versus  perpendicular  canes. 

An  old  dictum  of  viticulture  is  that  the  nearer  the  growing 
parts  of  the  vine  approach  the  perpendicular,  the  more  vigorous 
the  parts.  The  terminal  buds,  as  every  grape-grower  knows, 
grow  very  rapidly  and  probably  absorb,  unless  checked,  more 
than  their  share  of  the  energy  of  the  vine.  This  tendency  can 
be  checked  somewhat  by  removing  the  terminal  buds,  which 
also  helps  to  keep  the  plants  within  manageable  limits,  but  is 
better  controlled  by  training  the  canes  to  horizontal  positions. 
Grape  canes  are  tied  horizontally  to  wires  to  make  the  vines 
more  manageable  and  to  reduce  their  vigor  and  so  induce  fruitful- 
ness  ;  they  are  trained  vertically  to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  vine. 

Winter-pruning. 

Winter-pruning  of  the  vineyard  may  be  done  at  any  time  from 
the  dropping  of  the  leaves  in  the  autumn  to  the  swelling  of  the 
buds  in  the  spring.  The  sap  begins  to  circulate  actively  in  the 
grape  early  in  the  spring,  even  to  the  extremities  of  the  vine, 


PLATE  IX.  —  Campbell  Early  (Xf). 


PRUNING    THE   GRAPE  IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     115 

and  most  grape-growers  believe  this  sap  to  be  a  "vital  stream " 
and  that,  if  the  vine  is  pruned  during  its  flow,  the  plant  will 
bleed  to  death.  The  vine,  however,  is  at  this  season  of  so  drop- 
sical a  constitution  that  the  loss  of  sap  is  better  denominated 
" weeping"  than  "bleeding."  It  is  doubtful  whether  serious 
injury  results  from  pruning  after  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  but  it 
is  a  safe  practice  to  prune  earlier  and  the  work  is  certainly 
pleasanter.  The  vine  should  not  be  pruned  when  the  wood  is 
frozen,  since  at  this  time  the  canes  are  brittle  and  easily  broken 
in  handling.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  to  delay  pruning  in 
northern  climates  until  after  a  heavy  freeze  in  the  autumn,  to 
winterkill  and  wither  immature  wood  so  that  it  can  be  re- 
moved in  pruning. 

Summer-pruning. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  summer-pruning,  the  removal  of 
superfluous  shoots,  heading-in  canes  to  keep  the  vines  in  man- 
ageable limits  and  the  pruning  to  induce  fruitfulness  discussed 
on  a  foregoing  page,  which  need  not  have  further  consideration. 
It  is  very  essential  that  the  grower  keep  these  three  purposes 
in  mind,  especially  as  there  is  much  dispute  as  to  the  necessity 
of  two  of  these  operations. 

All  agree  that  the  vine  usually  bears  superfluous  shoots  that 
should  be  removed.  These  are  such  as  spring  from  small, 
weak  buds  or  from  buds  on  the  arms  and  trunk  of  the  vine. 
These  shoots  are  useless,  devitalize  the  vine,  and  hinder  vine- 
yard operations.  A  good  practice  is  to  rub  off  the  buds  from 
which  these  shoots  grow  as  they  are  detected,  but  in  most  vine- 
yards the  vines  must  be  gone  over  from*  time  to  time  as  the 
shoots  appear.  Still  another  kind  of  superfluous  shoots,  which 
ought  to  be  removed  as  they  appear,  are  those  which  grow  from 
the  base  of  the  season's  shoots,  the  so-called  secondary  or  axil- 
lary shoots.  These  are  usually  "broken  out"  at  the  time  the 
shoots  from  weak  buds  are  removed. 


116        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

While  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  heading-back  the 
vine  in  the  summer  for  the  sole  purpose  of  inducing  fruitful- 
ness,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  desirable  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  some  varieties  within  bounds.  Heading-back  is 
not  now  the  major  operation  it  once  was,  the  need  of  severe 
cutting  being  obviated  by  putting  the  vines  farther  apart,  by 
training  high  on  three  or  even  four  wires  and  by  adopting  one 
of  the  drooping  systems  of  training.  The  objections  to  head- 
ing-back in  the  summer  are  that  it  often  unduly  weakens  the 
vines,  that  it  may  induce  a  growth  of  laterals  which  thicken 
the  vines  too  much,  and  that  it  delays  the  maturing  of  the 
wood.  These  bad  effects,  however,  can  be  overcome  by  prun- 
ing lightly  and  doing  the  work  so  late  in  the  season  that  lateral 
growths  will  not  start.  Most  vineyardists  who  keep  their 
plantations  up  find  it  necessary  to  head  back  more  or  less,  de- 
pending on  the  season  and  the  variety.  The  work  is  usually 
done  when  the  over-luxuriant  shoots  begin  to  touch  the  ground. 
The  shoots  are  then  topped  off  with  a  sickle,  corn-cutter  or 
similar  tool. 

RENEWING  FRUITING  WOOD 

There  are  two  ways  of  renewing  the  fruiting  wood  on  a 
grape-vine,  by  canes  and  from  spurs.  The  manner  of  renew- 
ing refers  to  pruning  and  not  to  training,  for  either  can  be  used 
in  any  method  of  training. 

Cane  renewals. 

Renewal  by  canes  is  made  each  year  by  taking  one  or  more 
canes,  cut  to  the  desired  number  of  buds,  to  supply  bearing 
shoots.  By  this  method  the  most  of  the  bearing  wood  is  re- 
moved each  year,  new  canes  taking  the  place  of  the  old.  These 
renewal  canes  may  be  taken  either  from  the  head  of  the  vine  or 
from  the  ground,  though  the  latter  is  little  used  except  where 


PRUNING   THE   GRAPE   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     117 


vines  must  be  laid  down  for  winter  protection.  Canes  may  be 
renewed  indefinitely,  if  care  is  exercised  in  keeping  the  stubs 
short,  without  enlarging  the  head  from  which  the  canes  are 
taken  out  of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  trunk.  Renewing 
by  canes  is  a  more  common  method  than  renewal  by  spurs, 
as  will  be  found  in  the  discussion  of  methods  of  training. 

Spur  renewal. 

In  renewing  by  spurs,  a  permanent  arm  is  established  to 
right  and  left  on  the  canes.  Shoots  on  this  arm  are  not  permit- 
ted to  remain  as  canes  but  are  cut  back  to  spurs  in  the  dor- 
mant pruning.  Two  buds  are  left  at  this  pruning,  both  of  which 
will  produce  bearing  shoots ;  the  lower  one,  however,  is  not 
suffered  to  do  so  but  is  kept  to  furnish  the  spur  for  the  next 
season.  The  shoot  from  the  upper  bud  is  cut  away  entirely. 
When  this  process  is 
carried  on  from  year  to 
year,  the  spurs  become 
longer  and  longer  until 
they  become  unwieldy. 
Occasionally,  however, 
happy  chance  permits 
the  selection  of  a  shoot 
on  the  old  wood  for  a 
new  spur.  Failing  in 
this,  a  new  arm  must 
be  laid  down  and  the 
spurring  goes  on  as  be- 
fore. The  objections 
to  renewing  by  spurs 
are :  it  is  often  difficult  to  replace  spurs  with  new  wood,  and 
the  bearing  portion  of  the  vine  gets  farther  and  farther  from 
the  trunk.  For  these  reasons,  spur-renewing  is  generally  in 
disfavor  with  commercial  grape-growers,  though  it  is  still  used 


FIG.  13.  Vine  ready  for  pruning ;  i,  the 
stem  ;  g,  arms ;  d,  canes ;  s,  shoots ;  b,  spurs. 
The  faint  lines  near  the  bases  of  the  canes  in- 
dicate the  points  where  they  should  be  pruned 
off  in  the  winter,  lea^ng  spurs  for  the  produc- 
tion of  shoots  the  following  season. 


118        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

in  one  or  two  prominent  methods  of  training,  as  will  be  dis- 
covered in  this  discussion.  Figure  13  shows  a  vine  ready  for 
pruning. 

THE  WORK  OF  PRUNING 

The  pruner  may  take  his  choice  between  several  styles  of 
hand  pruning-shears  with  which  to  do  his  work.  The  knife 
is  seldom  used  except  in  summer-pruning,  and  here,  more 
often,  the  shoots  are  broken  out  or  pinched  out.  In  winter- 
pruning,  the  cane  is  cut  an  inch  or  thereabout  beyond  the 
last  bud  it  is  desired  to  leave ;  otherwise  the  bud  may  die  from 
the  drying  out  of  the  cane.  The  canes  are  usually  allowed  to 
remain  tied  to  the  wires  until  the  pruning  is  done,  though 
growers  who  use  the  Kniffin  method  of  training  may  cut  them 
loose  before  they  prune.  Two  men  working  together  do  the 
work  of  pruning  best.  The  more  skilled  of  the  two  severs 
the  wood  from  the  bearing  vine,  leaving  just  the  number  of 
buds  desired  for  the  next  season's  crop.  The  less  skilled  man 
cuts  tendrils  and  severs  the  cut  canes  from  each  other  so  that 
the  prunings  may  be  moved  from  the  vineyard  without  trouble 
by  the  " stripper." 

Not  the  least  of  the  tasks  of  pruning  is  " stripping"  the 
brush  and  getting  it  out  of  the  vineyard.  The  prunings  cling 
to  the  trellis  with  considerable  tenacity  and  must  be  pulled 
loose  with  a  peculiar  jerk,  learned  by  practice,  and  placed  on 
the  ground  between  the  rows.  Stripping  is  done,  usually  by 
cheap  labor,  at  any  time  after  the  pruning  until  spring,  but 
must  not  be  delayed  until  growth  starts  or  the  young  buds  may 
suffer  as  the  cut  wood  is  torn  from  the  trellis.  The  brush  is 
hauled  to  the  end  of  the  row  by  hand  or  by  horse-power  applied 
to  any  one  of  a  dozen  devices  used  in  the  several  grape  regions. 
One  of  the  best  is  the  device  in  common  use  in  the  Chautauqua 
vineyards  of  western  New  York.  A  pole,  twelve  feet  long,  four 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  and  two  at  the  top,  is  bored  with 


PRUNING   THE   GRAPE   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA     119 


an  inch  hole  four  feet  from  the  butt.  A  horse  is  hitched  to 
this  pole  by  a  rope  drawn  through  the  hole,  and  the  pole,  butt 
to  the  ground,  is  then 
pulled  between  rows, 
the  small  end  being 
held  in  the  right  hand. 
The  pole,  when  skill- 
fully used,  collects 
the  brush,  which  is 

FIG.   14.     A     go-devil     for  collecting  primings. 

dumped    at    the    end 

of  the  row  by  letting  the  small  end  fly  over  towards  the  horse. 
The  "  go-devil,"  shown  in  Fig.  14,  is  another  common  device 
for  collecting  prunings. 


THE  TRELLIS 

The  trellis  is  a  considerable  item  in  the  grape-grower's  bud- 
get, since  it  must  be  renewed  every  fifteen  years  or  thereabouts. 
Wires  are  strung  in  the  North  at  the  end  of  the  second  season 
after  planting,  but  in  the  South  the  growth  is  often  so  great 
that  the  wires  must  be  put  up  at  the  end  of  the  first  season. 
Trellises  are  of  the  same  general  style  for  commercial  vineyards ; 
namely,  two  or  three  wires  tautly  stretched  on  firmly  set  posts. 
Occasionally  slat  trellises  are  put  up  in  gardens  but  these  are 
not  to  be  recommended  for  any  but  ornamental  purposes. 

Posts. 

Strong,  durable  posts  of  chestnut,  locust,  cedar,  oak  or  ree'n- 
f orced  cement  are  placed  at  such  distance  apart  that  two  or 
three  vines  can  be  set  between  each  two  posts.  The  distance 
apart  depends  on  the  distance  between  vines,  although  the 
tendency  now  is  to  have  three  vines  between  two  posts.  The 
posts  are  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  length,  the  heaviest  being 
used  as  end  posts.  In  hard  stony  soils  it  may  be  necessary  to 


120 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


set  the  end  posts  with  a  spade,  but  usually  sharpened  posts  can 
be  driven  into  holes  made  with  a  crow-bar.  In  driving,  the 
operator  stands  on  a  wagon  hauled  by  a  horse  and  uses  a  ten-  or 
twelve-pound  maul.  The  posts  are  driven  to  a  depth  of  eight- 
een or  twenty-four  inches  for  the  end  posts.  However  set, 
the  posts  must  stand  firm  to  hold  the  load  of  vines  and  fruit. 
The  end  posts  must  be  braced.  As  good  a  brace  as  any  is  made 


FIG.  15.     A  trellis  and  a  common  method  of  bracing  end  posts. 

from  a  four-by-four  timber,  notched  to  fit  the  post  halfway  up 
from  the  ground,  and  extending  obliquely  to  the  ground,  where 
it  is  held  by  a  four-by-four  stake.  A  two-wire  trellis  and  a 
common  method  of  bracing  end  posts  are  shown  in  Fig.  15. 
The  posts  on  hillsides  must  lean  slightly  up-hill,  otherwise 
they  will  almost  certainly  sooner  or  later  tilt  down  the 
slope.  The  posts  are  usually  permitted  to  stand  a  little  higher 
at  first  than  necessary  so  that  they  may  be  driven  down 
should  occasion  call ;  driving  is  usually  done  in  the  early 
spring. 


PRUNING    THE   GRAPE  IN   EASTERN    AMERICA     121 

Wire  for  the  trellis. 

Four  sizes  of  wire  are  in  common  use  for  vineyard  trellises ; 
nos.  9,  10,  11  and  12.  Number  9,  the  heaviest,  is  often  used 
for  the  top  wire  with  lighter  wires  lower.  The  following  figures 
show  the  length  of  wire  in  a  ton : 

No.    9,  34,483  ft.  No.  11,  52,352  ft. 

No.  10,  41,408  ft.  No.  12,  68,493  ft. 

From  tnese  figures  the  number  of  pounds  required  to  the  acre 
is  easily  calculated.  Common  annealed  wire  makes  a  durable 
trellis,  but  many  growers  prefer  the  more  durable  galvanized 
wire,  the  cost  of  which  is  slightly  greater.  The  wires  are 
fastened  to  the  end  posts  by  winding  once  around  the  post, 
and  then  each  wire  is  firmly  looped  about  itself;  they  are  se- 
cured to  the  intervening  posts  by  ordinary  fence  staples  so 
driven  that  the  wire  cannot  pull  through  of  its  own  weight  but 
with  space  enough  to  permit  tightening  from  season  to  season. 
The  size  and  length  of  the  staples  depend  on  whether  the  posts 
are  hard  or  soft  wood.  The  longest  and  largest  staples  are 
used  with  soft  woods,  as  cedar  or  chestnut.  An  acre  requires 
from  nine  to  twelve  pounds  of  staples.  The  wires  should  be 
placed  on  the  windward  sides  of  posts  and  on  the  up-hill  side  in 
hillside  vineyards.  The  distance  between  wires  depends  on 
the  method  of  pruning. 

The  wires  must  be  stretched  taut  on  the  posts,  for  which 
purpose  any  one  of  a  half-dozen  good  wire  stretchers  may  be 
purchased  at  hardware  stores.  Some  growers  loosen  the  wires 
after  harvest  to  allow  for  the  contraction »*in  cold  weather  and 
others  use  some  one  of  several  devices  to  relieve  the  strain. 
Most  growers,  however,  find  it  necessary  to  go  over  the  vine- 
yard each  spring  to  drive  down  loosened  posts  and  stretch 
sagging  wires,  and  so  take  no  precautions  to  release  wires  in 
the  fall.  All  agree  that  the  wires  must  be  kept  tight  during 


122        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

the  growing  season  to  protect  buds,  foliage  and  fruit  from 
being  injured  from  whipping. 

Tying. 

The  canes  are  tied  to  the  trellis  in  early  spring,  and  under 
most  systems  of  pruning  the  growing  shoots  are  tied  in  the 
summer.  This  work  is  done  by  cheap  men,  women,  boys  and 
girls.  A  great  variety  of  material  is  used  to  make  the  tie,  as 
raffia,  wooltwine,  willow,  inner  bark  of  the  linden  or  bass- 
wood,  green  rye  straw,  corn  husks,  carpet-rags  and  wire.  The 
same  materials  are  not  usually  employed  for  both  canes  and 
shoots,  since  the  canes  are  tied  firmly  to  hold  them  steady  and 
the  work  is  done  early  before  there  is  danger  of  breaking  swell- 
ing buds,  while  the  summer  shoots  are  tied  to  hold  for  a  shorter 
time  and  more  loosely  to  permit  growth  in  diameter.  Tying 
usually  follows  accepted  patterns  in  one  region  but  varies 
greatly  in  different  regions.  There  is  a  knack  to  be  learned  in 
the  use  of  each  one  of  the  materials  named,  but  with  none  is  it 
difficult,  and  an  ingenious  person  can  easily  contrive  a  tie  of 
his  own  to  suit  fancy  or  conditions. 


PLATE  X.  —  Clinton  (Xf). 


CHAPTER  VIII 

/ 

METHODS   OF  TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN 
AMERICA 

THE  grape-grower  takes  great  liberties  with  Nature  in  train- 
ing his  plants.  No  other  fruit  is  so  completely  transformed 
by  the  grower's  art  from  its  natural  habit  of  growth.  Happily, 
the  grape  endures  cutting  well,  and  the  pruner  may  rest  as- 
sured that  he  may  work  his  will  in  pruning  his  vines,  following 
to  his  heart's  desire  a  favorite  method  with  little  fear  of  seri- 
ously injuring  his  vines.  Because  of  its  accommodation  to  the 
desires  of  man  in  the  disposition  of  the  vine,  there  are  many 
methods  of  training  the  grape;  there  being  in  the  commercial 
vineyards  of  eastern  America  a  dozen  or  more.  However, 
the  differences  and  similarities  are  so  marked  that  the  several 
methods  fall  into  a  simple  classification  which  makes  con- 
spicuous their  chief  features.  Thus,  all  of  the  methods  fall 
under  two  chief  heads:  (1)  The  disposition  of  shoots;  (2)  the 
disposition  of  canes. 

The  disposition  of  shoots. 

Bearing  shoots  are  disposed  of  in  three  ways  in  training 
grapes;  shoots  upright,  shoots  droopingf  and  shoots  hori- 
zontal. The  terms  explain  themselves,  but  the  three  methods 
need  amplification  since  their  adoption  is  not  optional  with 
growers  but  depends  on  several  circumstances. 

Shoots  are  trained  upright  in  several  methods  in  which  two 
or  more  arms  or  canes  are  laid  to  right  and  left,  sometimes 

123 


124       MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

horizontally,  sometimes  obliquely  along  or  across  horizontal 
wires.  As  the  shoots  grow  upward,  they  are  tied  to  wires 
above.  The  upright  methods  are  supposed  to  distribute  the 
bearing  wood  more  evenly  on  the  vines  and  to  insure  greater 
uniformity  in  the  fruit.  In  the  upright  methods,  also,  the  canes 
and  arms  are  left  nearer  the  ground,  which  is  thought  to  be 
an  advantage  in  small,  weak  or  slow-growing  varieties.  Dela- 
ware, Catawba,  lona  and  Diana  are  examples  of  varieties 
thought  to  grow  best  when  trained  to  one  of  the  upright 
methods. 

In  the  several  methods  in  which  the  shoots  droop,  however 
the  canes  may  be  disposed,  the  shoots  are  not  tied  but  are 
allowed  to  droop  at  will.  These  methods  are  comparatively 
new  but  are  being  rapidly  adopted  because  of  several  marked 
advantages.  Usually  one  less  wire  can  be  used  in  a  drooping 
method  than  in  an  upright  one ;  since  the  shoots  are  not  tied, 
much  labor  is  saved  in  summer  tying;  the  ground  can  be 
tilled  with  less  danger  to  the  vines;  and  there  is  less  sun- 
scalding  of  the  fruit,  since  the  pendant  foliage  protects  the 
clusters.  Grape-growers  generally  agree  that  strong-growing 
varieties  like  Concord,  Niagara,  Brighton,  Diamond  and  most 
of  the  hybrids  between  European  grapes  and  native  species 
grow  best  when  the  shoots  droop. 

Shoots  are  trained  horizontally  in  but  one  recognized  method, 
the  Hudson  Horizontal,  to  be  described  in  detail  later.  Since 
this  method  is  all  but  obsolete,  there  is  still  less  reason  for  dis- 
cussing it  here,  the  expressive  name  sufficing  for  present  pur- 
poses. 

Disposition  of  canes. 

There  are  many  recognized  methods  of  disposing  of  the  canes 
in  training  the  grape.  The  chief  of  these  are  discussed  in  the 
pages  that  follow,  their  names  being  set  down  for  the  present 
in  the  classification  that  follows. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       125 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   METHODS   OF   TRAINING   THE 
GRAPE    IN   EASTERN   AMERICA 

I.    Shoots  upright : 

1.  Chautauqua  Arm. 

2.  Keuka  High  Renewal. 

3.  Fan. 

II.    Shoots  drooping : 

1.  Single-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffin. 

2.  Two-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffin. 

3.  Umbrella  Kniffin. 

4.  Y-stem  Kniffin. 

5.  Munson. 
III.    Shoots  horizontal : 

1.    Hudson  Horizontal. 

I.   Shoots  upright 

Systematic  training  of  the  grape  in  America  began  toward 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  with  a  method  in  which 
the  shoots  were  trained  upright  from  two  permanent  hori- 
zontal arms.  These  arms  are  laid  to  right  and  left  on  a  low 
wire  and  bear  more  or  less  permanent  spurs,  from  each  of  which 
two  shoots  are  produced  each  season  to  bear  the  crop.  The 
number  of  spurs  left  on  each  arm  depends  on  the  vigor  of  the 
vine  and  the  space  between  vines.  As  the  shoots  grow  up- 
ward, they  are  tied  to  upper  wires,  there  being  three  wires  on 
the  trellis  for  this  method.  This  method  is  now  known  as  the 
Horizontal  Arm  Spur.  It  has  a  serious  fault  in  its  trouble- 
some spurs  and  has  almost  entirely  given  way  to  a  modifica- 
tion called  the  Chautauqua  Arm  method,  much  used  in  the 
great  Chautauqua  grape-belt.  As  one  of  the  chief  methods 
of  training  the  grape  in  eastern  Americd,  this  must  be  de- 
scribed in  detail. 

The  Chautauqua  Arm  method. 

The  trellis  for  this  method  has  two  wires,  although  occasion- 
ally three  are  used.  The  lower  wire  is  eighteen  or  twenty 


126        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

inches  above  the  ground  and  the  second  thirty-four  inches 
above  the  lower.  If  three  are  used,  the  wires  are  twenty 
inches  apart.  F.  E.  Gladwin,  in  charge  of  the  vineyard  lab- 
oratory of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
at  Fredonia,  in  the  heart  of  the  Chautauqua  belt,  describes 
this  method  of  training  as  follows : 

"The  vines  are  cut  back  to  two  buds  at  each  pruning  the 
first  two  years.  If  the  vines  are  vigorous  two  canes  are  tied 
up  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year ;  if  scant,  but  one  is  left 
and  this,  if  the  growth  is  extremely  unfavorable,  is  cut  back 
to  two  buds.  The  canes  are  carried  up  obliquely  to  the  upper 
wire  when  the  growth  permits  and  are  there  firmly  tied  either 
with  twine  or  fine  wire,  the  latter  being  more  commonly  used. 
The  canes  are  also  loosely  tied  to  the  lower  wire.  The  pruning 
for  the  fourth  year  consists  in  cutting  away  all  but  two  or  three 
canes  and  a  number  of  spurs  from  the  arms  formed  by  tying 
up  the  two  canes  the  previous  year.  The  vine  now  consists  of 
two  arms,  arising  from  near  the  ground,  with  two  or  three 
canes  of  the  previous  year,  and  several  two-bud  spurs  at  in- 
tervals along  the  arms.  As  far  as  possible  such  canes  as  have 
arisen  but  a  short  distance  above  the  lower  wire  are  selected. 
All  the  old  wood  projecting  beyond  the  last  cane  retained  on 
each  of  the  arms  is  cut  away.  The  arms  of  the  third  year  are 
bent  down  from  their  oblique  position  and  are  tied  firmly  to 
the  lower  wire,  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  center  of  the  vine. 
These  are  now  permanent  arms.  The  vine  at  this  time  consists 
of  two  arms,  arising  from  near  the  ground,  tied  to  the  lower 
wire  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  center,  and  on  these  are  two 
or  three  canes,  pruned  long  enough  to  reach  to  the  middle 
wire  at  least,  and  if  possible  to  the  upper.  They  are  tied  so 
that  they  stand  in  a  vertical  or  oblique  position.  Along  the 
arms  at  intervals  of  a  few  inches  are  spurs,  consisting  of  two 
buds.  If  the  vineyardist  maintains  the  arms  permanently, 
these  spurs  furnish  the  fruiting  wood  for  the  succeeding  year. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       127 

"  At  the  pruning  for  the  fifth  year  one  of  the  arms  is  cut  away 
entirely,  close  to  the  point  of  its  origin.  The  remaining  arm, 
reaching  from  the  ground  to  a  point  a  few  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  lower  wire,  now  becomes  the  permanent  stem. 
The  vineyardist  must  now  provide  for  the  arm  cut  away. 
This  is  done  by  the  selection  of  a  cane,  arising  from  the  re- 
maining arm  at  a  point  below  the  lower  wire,  either  directly, 


FIG.  16.     Chautauqua  training ;   vine  ready  to  prune. 

or  from  a  spur  left  for  the  purpose.  This  is  pruned  to  reach 
the  top  wire  and  is  tied  obliquely  to  it.  This  cane  at  the  next 
pruning  is  tied  down  to  the  lower  wire  and  becomes  the  second 
arm.  Then  the  same  selection  of  canes  and  spurs  is  made  from 
it  as  was  made  at  the  previous  pruning,  and  the  canes  are  tied 
up  as  before.  However,  if  the  grower  desires  to  retain  both 
arms  of  the  preceding  year  for  a  few  years,  canes  that  have 
grown  from  the  spurs  may  be  tied  up  and  provision  made  for 
the  following  year  through  further  spurring.  If  but  a  single 


128        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

arm  is  retained,  it  is  pruned  in  the  same  way.  Spurs  may  be 
obtained  from  canes  that  have  arisen  from  dormant  buds  on 
the  arm,  or  by  spurring  in  the  basal  canes  of  the  fruiting  wood 
of  the  year  previous.  A  combination  of  both  methods  of  re- 
newal will  in  the  long  run  work  out  the  better,  as  the  repeated 
spurring  in  of  the  basal  canes  will  result  in  greatly  lengthened 
spurs  that  will  require  frequent  cutting  out.  While  the  canes 
that  arise  directly  from  dormant  buds  on  wood  two  years  and 
over  are  not  necessarily  the  best  fruiting  ones,  they  can,  how- 
ever, be  utilized  for  renewal  purposes. 

"  The  ideal  vine  pruned  to  this  system  now  consists  of  a  stem 
reaching  from  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  above  the  ground 
level  or  a  few  inches  below  the  level  of  the  lower  wire. 
Such  a  vine  is  shown  in  Figure  16.  From  the  head  two 
arms  arise,  one  extending  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left 
and  tied  along  the  lower  wire,  each  arm  not  extending  for 
more  than  two  feet  and  a  half  to  either  side  of  the  head. 
From  the  arms  two  canes  on  each  are  tied  vertically  or 
obliquely  to  the  top  wire.  In  addition  there  are  left  two  or 
three  spurs,  growing  from  the  upper  side  of  each  arm,  located 
at  well-spaced  intervals  starting  close  to  the  head ;  these  may 
be  used  for  the  renewal  of  the  arms.  The  shoots  are  not  tied. 

"One  of  the  chief  faults  of  the  Chautauqua  Arm  method  is 
the  tendency  of  the  best  matured,  and  most  desirable  canes 
to  develop  at  or  near  the  upper  wire,  while  those  lower  down 
are  often  too  short,  or  so  poorly  matured  as  to  be  unfitted  for 
fruiting  purposes.  When  the  wood,  bearing  the  well-developed 
upper  canes,  is  brought  down  for  arms,  a  considerable  interval 
of  the  arm  from  the  head  to  the  point  where  the  canes  arise  is 
without  fruiting  wood.  Under  such  conditions  the  growth  will 
be  again  thrown  to  the  extremities.  If  spurring  on  the  arms 
has  been  practiced,  this  undesirable  condition  is  eliminated. 
With  either  type  of  renewal,  spurring  should  be  practiced. 
The  fruit  from  vines  trained  by  this  method  reaches  its  highest 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       129 

development  at  or  near  the  level  of  the  upper  wire,  that  on  the 
lower  shoots  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  inferior.  This  comes  from 
the  fact  that  the  sap  flow  is  more  vigorous  at  these  upper  points, 
resulting  in  more  and  healthier  leaves,  which,  in  turn,  influence 
the  fruit  for  the  better." 

Keuka  High  Renewal. 

Several  methods  of  training  pass  under  the  general  term 
"High  Renewal/'  the  significance  of  which  becomes  apparent 
in  the  discussion  of  the  Keuka  High  Renewal  method  which 
is  probably  now  the  most  common  of  the  several  types.  In 
most  of  these  methods  the  trellis  is  put  up  with  three  wires, 
but  occasionally  only  two  wires  are  used  and  still  less  often 
four.  The  lowest  wire  on  the  three-wire  trellis  is  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  from  the  ground  with  twenty-inch  intervals 
between  wires.  Gladwin,  who  has  direct  charge  of  vineyard 
experimental  work  about  Keuka  Lake  for  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  describes  current  practices 
in  pruning  according  to  this  method  as  follows : 

"At  each  pruning  for  the  first  two  years  the  vines  are  cut 
back  to  two  buds.  However,  with  strong-growing  varieties 
like  Concord,  Niagara  and  Isabella,  and  under  good  soil  con- 
ditions, the  stem  may  be  formed  the  second  year.  With  moder- 
ate-growing varieties  and  under  average  conditions,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  stem  is  left  until  the  third  year.  The  straightest 
and  best-matured  cane  is  left  for  the  purpose.  This  is  carried 
to  the  lower  wire  and  there  firmly  tied  with  willow.  As  soon 
as  the  shoots  have  made  sufficient  growth  they  are  loosely  tied 
to  the  wires  that  they  may  be  kept  away  from  the  tillage  tools. 
The  fourth  year  the  head  of  the  vine  is  formed.  This  should 
stand  a  few  inches  below  the  lower  wire.  Two  canes  grow- 
ing from  the  stem  near  this  position  are  selected,  one  being 
tied  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left  along  the  lower  wire. 
In  the  Keuka  Lake  District,  the  canes  are  tied  with  willows. 


130        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

In  addition,  at  least  two  spurs  of  two  buds  each  are  retained 
near  the  head.  With  Concord,  the  canes  may  carry  about 
ten  buds  each,  but  with  Catawba,  as  grown  on  the  hillsides  of 
the  Central  Lakes  Region  of  New  York,  the  canes  should  not 
carry  above  six  buds  each.  As  the  shoots  develop  from  the 
horizontal  canes,  they  are  tied  with  rye  straw  to  the  middle 
and  upper  wires.  This  summer  tying  is  almost  continuous 
after  the  shoots  are  long  enough  to  reach  the  middle  wire. 

"  The  following  year  all  the  wood  is  cut  away  except  two  or 
three  canes  that  have  developed  from  the  basal  buds  of  the  canes 
put  up  the  previous  year,  or  that  have  grown  from  the  spurs. 
In  the  event  of  a  third  cane  being  retained,  it  is  tied  along  the 
middle  wire.  Spurs  are  again  maintained  close  to  the  head 
for  renewal  purposes.  The  other  two  canes  are  tied  along  the 
lower  wire  as  before.  If  the  same  spurs  are  used  for  a  few 
years  they  become  so  long  that  the  canes  arising  from  them 
reach  above  the  wire  and  cannot  be  well  managed  in  the  '  willow- 
ing.'  It  is  desirable  to  provide  new  spurs  annually,  selecting 

those  canes  for 
the  purpose  that 
arise  from  the  head 
of  the  vine  or  near 
it.  It  is  possible 
by  careful  pruning 
to  so  cut  away  the 
old  wood  that 
practically  all  that 

FIG.  17.     Keuka  method  of  training.  .         \ 

remains  atter  each 

pruning  is  the  stem.  Thus  the  vine  is  renewed  almost  to 
the  ground.  When  the  stem  approaches  the  end  of  its  use- 
fulness, a  shoot  is  allowed  to  grow  from  the  ground,  and  the 
old  one  is  cut  away.  Figure  17  shows  a  vine  pruned  by  the 
Keuka  method. 

"This  method  of  training  is  especially  well  adapted  to  slow 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA        131 

growing  varieties,  or  those  situated  on  poor  soils,  where  but 
little  wood  growth  is  made.  It  is  ideally  adapted  for  the 
growing  of  Catawba  on  the  hillsides  of  Keuka  Lake.  It  is 
well  adapted  to  late-maturing  varieties  planted  out  of  their 
zone.  Concord,  growing  under  average  conditions,  is  too 
vigorous  to  be  trained  by  this  method.  It  makes  a  tremendous 
growth  of  wood  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  fruit, 
which  is  inclined  to  be  very  inferior.  The  chief  objection  to 
this  method  is  the  amount  of  summer  tying  involved  which 
comes  at  a  time  when  attention  to  tillage  should  be  given. 
It  might  prove  profitable  in  the  growing  of  dessert  varieties 
that  have  been  discarded  because  of  lack  of  vigor.  On  thin 
hillside  soils,  Catawba  requires  training  modelled  after  this 
method  but  on  the  heavier  upland  ones,  with  shorter  pruning, 
it  can  be  grown  on  the  Chautauqua  Arm  plan.  Delaware, 
lona,  Dutchess,  Campbell,  Eumelan,  Jessica,  Vergennes  and 
Regal  are,  as  a  rule,  grown  to  better  advantage  when  trained 
by  the  High  Renewal  method." 

Fan-training. 

The  only  other  method  now  in  use  in  which  the  shoots  may 
be  trained  upright  is  that  in  which  the  canes  are  disposed  of 
in  fan-shape.  This  method  was  much  used  a  generation  ago 
but  is  rapidly  becoming  obsolete.  In  fan-training  the  renewals 
are  made  yearly  from  spurs  near  the  ground,  and  the  fruiting 
canes  are  carried  up  obliquely  and  so  form  a  fan.  The  great 
advantage  in  fan-training  is  that  a  trunk  is  almost  dispensed 
with,  which  greatly  facilitates  laying  down  the  vine  in  winter 
where  winter-protection  is  needed.  There  are  several  objec- 
tions to  this  method  in  commercial  plantations.  The  chief 
one  is  that  the  spurs  become  long,  crooked  and  almost  un- 
manageable so  that  renewals  from  the  root  must  be  made 
frequently.  Another  is  that  the  fruit  is  borne  close  to  the  ground 
and  becomes  soiled  with  mud  in  dashing  rains.  The  vines, 


132        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

also,  are  inconvenient  in  shape  for  tying.  There  are  two  or 
three  modifications  of  fan-training  which  may  be  described 
as  mongrel  methods  between  this  and  the  High  Renewal  and 
Horizontal  Arm  methods,  none  of  which,  however,  is  nowT  in 
general  favor. 

II.   Shoots  drooping 

Quite  by  accident,  William  Kniffin,  a  stone  mason  living 
at  Clintondale,  NewT  York,  in  the  Hudson  River  grape  region, 
discovered  that  grapes  of  large  size  and  handsome  appearance 
could  be  grown  on  vines  in  which  the  canes  were  trained  hori- 
zontally with  the  shoots  drooping.  He  put  his  discovery  in 
practice  and  from  it  have  come  the  several  methods  of  training 
grapes  which  bear  his  name.  Kniffin's  discovery  was  made 
about  1850  and  the  merits  of  his  methods  spread  so  rapidly 
over  eastern  America  that  by  the  end  of  the  century  the  various 
Kniffin  methods  were  more  generally  used  than  any  others. 
Grape-growers  now  agree  that  strong-growing  vines  like  Con- 
cord, Niagara  and  Clinton  are  best  trained  to  one  or  another 
of  the  Kniffin  methods.  There  are  several  modifications  of 
Kniffin's  method,  three  of  which  are  now  in  common  use,  the 
most  popular  being  the  Single-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffin. 

The  trellis  for  the  three  methods  carries  two  wires,  the  lower 
placed  at  the  height  of  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet  and  the 
upper  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  above  it.  To  permit 
this  height  of  wires,  the  posts  must  be  from  eight  to  eight  and 
a  half  feet  in  length,  and  must  be  firmly  set  with  the  end  posts 
well  braced. 

Single-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffin. 

As  practiced  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  the  vines  are  trained  as  follows : 

One  trunk  is  carried  to  the  top  wire  the  third  year  after 
planting,  or  if  the  growth  is  not  long  enough  at  this  time,  it 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN    AMERICA       133 


is  carried  to  the  lower  wire  and  there  tied.  In  this  case,  the 
following  year  a  cane  is  extended  to  the  top  wire.  This  trunk 
is  permanent.  If  the  stem  reaches  the  upper  wire  the  third 
year,  growers  break  out  many  of  the  developing  shoots  and 
allow  only  the  strongest  to  grow,  choosing  those  that  arise 
close  to  the  wires.  The  stem  should  be  tied  tightly  to  the 
top  wire  and  somewhat  loosely  to  the  lower.  If  girdling  re- 
sults at  the  top,  it  is  not  objectionable  as  the  head  of  the  vine 
should  be  below  rather  than  above  the  wire.  When  the  shoots 
are  sufficiently  hardened, 
those  growing  close  to 
the  wires  should  be 
loosely  tied  to  prevent 
injury  during  cultiva- 
tion. At  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  year,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  18,  the 
vine  should  consist  of  a 
stem  extending  from  the 
ground  to  a  point  below 
the  top  wire.  From  this, 
all  but  two  canes  and 
two  spurs  of  two  buds 
each  have  been  cut  away  below  each  wire  level.  As  growth 
is  most  vigorous  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  four  to  six  more 
buds  are  left  on  the  upper  than  on  the  lower  canes.  A  vine 
of  which  the  stem  reaches  the  upper  wire  the  third  year  should 
support*  the  next  season  canes,  aggregating  twenty-two  buds 
with  eight  additional  buds  on  the  spurs.  If  the  growth  is 
weak,  only  half  this  number  should  be  left. 

The  tying  at  this  time  consists  of  fastening  the  stem  loosely, 
with  ordinary  grape  twine,  to  the  lower  wire,  and  with  the 
same  material  the  canes  are  tied  along  the  two  wires  to  right 
and  left  of  the  stem.  The  canes  should  be  tied  tightly  toward 


FIG.  18.    Single-stem,    Four-cane    Kniffin 
training. 


134        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

the  trunk  so  that  they  cannot  slip  out  of  the  twine.  Ordi- 
narily tying  at  this  time  is  sufficient  for  the  year,  but  if  con- 
ditions for  growth  are  unfavorable,  the  twine  may  rot  before 
the  tendrils  take  hold  of  the  wires,  and  a  partial  second  tying 
may  be  necessary. 

After  the  fourth  season,  the  pruner  has  greater  choice  of  fruit- 
ing-wood  for  the  following  year.  It  may  be  chosen  from  the 
basal  canes  of  the  preceding  year's  wood  or  the  canes  that 
develop  from  the  spurs  may  be  used.  The  choice  should 
depend  on  the  accessibility  and  maturity  of  the  wood.  At 
each  pruning,  the  possibilities  for  obtaining  fruiting  wood  for 
the  following  year  must  receive  consideration.  It  is  possible 
to  use  the  same  spurs  for  two  or  three  years,  but  after  this  they 
should  be  cut  away  and  new  ones  retained.  After  the  first 
spurring;  spurs  should  be  selected  from  wood  older  than  two 
years.  The  shoots  from  such  wood  bear  but  little  fruit  and 
hence  make  good  fruiting  canes  for  the  next  year. 

Umbrella  Kniffin. 

Since  most  of  the  fruit  on  vines  trained  by  the  Four-cane 
Kniffin  method  is  borne  on  the  two  upper  canes,  some  growers 

in  the  Hudson  River 
Valley  dispense  with 
the  lower  canes  and 
cut  the  upper  ones 
long  enough  to  bear 
the  crop.  In  this 
method  the  trunk  is 
brought  to  the  top 
wire  and  the  head 
formed  as  in  the  Four- 

FIG.  19.    Umbrella  method  of  training.  T^  _TT1 

cane    Kniffin.     When 

the  vines  are  pruned  at  the  close  of  the  third  year,  two  long 
canes  are  left  at  the  head  of  the  vine  with  two  renewal  spurs. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN    AMERICA       135 

These  long  canes  are  drooped  over  the  upper  wire  obliquely 
down  to  the  lower  wire  to  which  they  are  tied  just  above  the 
last  bud,  forming  an  unbrella-shaped  top  as  shown  in  Fig.  19. 
The  renewals  are  made  as  in  the  Four-cane  Kniffin.  This 
method  reduces  the  amount  of  leaf  surface  to  the  minimum, 
so  that  care  must  be  taken  to  insure  healthy  leaf  growth. 
The  amount  of  fruiting-wood  put  up  is  also  reduced  to  the 
minimum,  so  that  the  yield  is  low  unless  good  cultiva- 
tion is  provided,  in  which  case,  with  some  varieties  and 
on  some  soils,  the  yield  is  up  to  the  average  and  the 
crop  is  first-class  as  regards  size  of  bunch  and  berry,  compact- 
ness of  bunch  and  maturity. 

The  Two-trunk  Kniffin. 

The  Two-trunk  Kniffin,  illustrated  in  Fig.  20,  is  another 
modification  with  the  aim  of  securing  greater  fruitfulness. 
This  method  also  provides  an  equal  number  of  buds  on  both 

wires.     Two  trunks  are 

brought  from  the  root, 
one  to  the  upper,  the 
other  to  the  lower  wire. 
The  fruiting  canes  are  _ 
taken  off  and  are  dis- 
posed of  as  in  the 
Four-cane  Kniffin.  The 
trunks  are  usually  tied 

together  to   hold   them  FlG.  20.    Two-trunk  Kniffin  training. 

in  place.  This  method 
is  in  restricted  use  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley  where  it  is 
known  under  the  name  given  here  and  as  "Double  Kniffin" 
and  "Improved  Kniffin."  In  experiments  in  training  grapes 
at  Fredonia,  New  York,  under  the  direction  of  the  New  York 
Experiment  Station,  this  method  proves  to  be  one  of  the 
poorest  in  growing  Concords.  The  grapes  fall  short  in  size  of 


136        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

bunch  and  berry  and  do  not  mature  as  well  as  under  the  other 
drooping  methods  of  training. 

The  Y-trunk  Kniffin. 

Still  another  modification  of  the  Kniffin  method  is  one  in 
which  a  crotch  or  Y  is  made  in  the  trunk  midway  between  the 
ground  and  the  lower  wire.  The  theory  on  which  this  method 
is  founded  is  that  sap  for  the  lower  canes  is  better  supplied 
than  in  a  straight  or  continuous  trunk  and  that  the  lower  canes 
thus  become  as  productive  as  those  on  the  upper  wire.  The 
theory  is  probably  wrong  but  is  accepted  by  many  notwithstand- 
ing. The  methods  of  pruning,  renewing  fruiting-wood  and  tying 
are  the  same  as  in  the  Single-stem  Kniffin,  except,  of  course, 
that  each  stem  supports  two  canes  and  two  spurs.  This  method 
was  in  somewhat  common  use  some  years  ago  in  parts  of 
western  New  York  but  is  now  disappearing. 

The  Munson  method. 

An  ingenious  modification  of  the  Kniffin  principle  was 
devised  by  Elbert  Wakeman,  Oyster  Bay,  Long  Island,  and 
afterwards  improved  and  brought  into  prominence  by  the  late 
T.  V.  Munson  of  Denison,  Texas ;  it  is  now  much  used  in 
southern  vineyards.  The  method  is  described  as  follows  by 
Munson : 1 

"The  posts  should  be  of  some  durable  strong  wood,  such  as 
Bois  d'Arc  (Osage),  Cedar,  heartwood  of  Catalpa,  Black 
Locust  or  White  Oak.  The  end  posts  of  every  row  should 
be  large  and  strong  and  be  set  three  and  one-half  or  four  feet 
in  the  ground  and  well  tamped.  The  intermediate  posts, 
which  may  be  much  lighter  than  the  end  posts,  should  be  six 
and  one-half  or  seven  feet  long  and  set  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  feet  in  the  ground,  with  twenty-four  feet  spaces  between 

1  Munson,  T.  V.  Foundations  of  American  Grape  Culture:  224-227. 
1909. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       137 

posts,  which  will  take  three  vines,  eight  feet  apart,  or  two 
vines  twelve  feet  apart.  After  the  posts  are  set,  a  three- 
eighths-inch  hole  should  be  bored  through  each  post,  four 
feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  row  runs,  leaving  six  inches  or  more  of  post  above  the  hole. 
These  holes  are  for  the  admittance  of  the  middle,  lower  wire 
of  the  trellis. 

"For  each  end  post  prepare  for  cross-arm,  a  piece  of  two  by 
four  hard  pine  or  oak,  two  feet  long,  and  at  one  inch  from  either 
end,  and  one  inch  from  the  upper  side,  bore  a  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  bit-hole,  or  saw  into  upper  side  half  an  inch,  which 
will  take  less  time  and  do  as  well,  to  pass  the  lateral  wires 
through,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  side,  saw  a  notch  one- 
half  inch  deep.  For  each  intermediate  post,  prepare  a  board 
of  similar  wood,  two  feet  long,  one  inch  thick  by  four  broad, 
and  likewise  bore  or  notch. 

"  Through  the  holes  in  the  posts  run  a  No.  11  galvanized 
wrire,  fasten  at  one  end,  tighten  at  the  other  end  by  a  wire 
stretcher  and  fasten.  This  will  be  the  middle  and  lower  wire 
of  the  trellis,  and  all  that  will  be  needed  the  first  year,  when 
the  young  vines  are  trained  up  a  string,  tied  from  the  vine 
(when  set)  to  the  wire,  and  along  it.  The  arms,  and  the  two 
lateral  wires  which  they  bear,  need  not  be  put  on  the  trellis 
until  after  the  vines  are  pruned  and  tied  the  next  winter.  To 
put  on  the  cross-arms,  use  no  bolts  or  nails,  only  No.  11  gal- 
vanized wire. 

"Each  end  cross-arm  is  placed  inside  the  post,  and  against 
it  on  top  of  the  wire,  already  through  the  posts,  notch-side 
downward,  straddling  the  wire,  to  keep  it*  from  sliding.  Then 
take  a  piece  of  same  size  wire,  about  seven  feet  long,  pass  one 
end  through  the  bit-hole  or  saw-notch,  in  one  end  of  arm  and 
fasten  it  by  looping  and  twisting  about  six  inches  of  the  end 
back  upon  itself,  then  while  one  person  holds  the  cross-arm 
in  place,  the  operator  carries  the  wire  down  around  the  post 


138        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

once  near  the  ground,  staples  it  on  each  side  and  brings  the 
other  end  up  to  the  opposite  end  of  arm,  puts  it  through  the 
bit-hole,  or  saw-notch,  draws  it  tightly,  keeping  the  arm  level, 
and  fastens  the  end  of  the  wire  as  was  done  the  other.  Wire 
nippers  and  pliers  will  be  needed  for  this  work.  Then  take 
another  piece  of  wire  about  two  feet  long,  and  put  it  twice 
around  the  cross-arm  and  the  post  where  they  come  together, 
above  the  middle  wire,  and  firmly  tie  them  together,  crossing 
the  wire  as  it  goes  around.  This  will  hold  the  arm  in  place 
and  not  weaken  or  split  the  arm  as  do  nails  and  bolts,  and  will 
be  longer-lasting,  quicker  and  cheaper,  and  more  elastic,  so 
that  when  struck  by  the  hames  or  collar  in  cultivation,  it 
gives  a  little,  receiving  no  damage. 

"Likewise  place  the  cross-arms  on  the  intermediate  posts, 
leaving  the  ends  of  the  wire  projecting  about  six  inches  after 
fastening,  for  a  purpose  soon  to  be  mentioned.  Then  draw 
the  two  lateral  wires  through  the  bit-holes  in  the  ends  of  the 
arms,  or  drop  into  the  saw-notches,  if  such  are  made,  through- 
out the  row,  tighten  with  the  wire  stretcher  and  fasten.  Then 
return  along  each  lateral  wire,  wrapping  ends  of  wire  at  the 
ends  of  the  arms  very  closely  and  tightly  around  the  through- 
going  lateral  wires,  as  telegraph  and  telephone  wires  are 
wrapped  in  splicing.  This  is  quickly  done  with  the  proper 
pliers,  and  prevents  the  arms  from  slipping  out  of  proper 
position.  Now  the  trellis  is  complete,  and  will  need  little  or 
no  repairs,  and  looks  very  neat,  especially  if  painted. 

"Pruning  and  training  on  the  Munson  trellis  is  very  simple 
and  easy  with  a  little  instruction  for  a  few  minutes  with  a 
vine  or  two  pruned  for  example.  The  vine  the  first  season  is 
allowed  to  grow  up  on  to  the  middle  wire  by  a  string  around 
which  it  is  coiled  by  hand,  by  going  over  the  vineyard  once  or 
twice  until  the  selected  shoot  of  each  vine  is  upon  the  wire, 
after  which  it  is  allowed  to  ramble  at  freedom  over  the  wires. 
By  getting  on  to  the  trellis  the  first  year,  one  strong  shoot, 


PLATE  XI.  —  Concord  (Xf). 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       139 

and  allowing  no  other  to  grow,  a  partial  crop  can  be  had  the 
second  year,  without  damage,  on  all  but  weak  growers,  like 
Delaware,  that  should  not  be  allowed  to  bear  until  the  third 
year.  At  the  first  regular  pruning  (all  prunings  should  be 
done  in  November  or  December,  after  leaf  fall,  and  never  so 
late  as  to  cause  the  vines  to  bleed),  the  vine  should  be  cut  back 
to  two  or  three  buds  that  have  reached  the  middle  wire,  if 
weak  growers,  if  strong,  with  heavy  growth,  six  or  eight  buds 
each,  to  two  arms,  one  going  each  way  along  the  lower  wire 
from  where  the  ascending  vine  first  touches  the  wire.  After 
the  vines  are  thus  pruned,  the  outer  end  of  each  arm  is  firmly 
tied  to  the  lower  wire,  along  which  it  is  gently  coiled.  These 
two  ties  hold  the  vine  firmly  in  place.  The  buds  on  the  arms 
push  and  ascend,  passing  over  the  lateral  wires,  clinging  thereto 
with  their  tendrils,  and  hang  over  like  a  beautiful  green  drapery 
shading  the  fruit  and  body  of  the  vine  according  to  its  natural 
habit. 

"On  the  canopy  trellis,  all  the  summer  pruning  required  is, 
to  go  through  the  vineyard  at  or  a  few  days  before  blooming 
time,  and  with  a  light  sharp  butcher  knife,  clip  off  the  tips  of 
all  advanced  shoots  to  be  left  for  bearing,  leaving  two  or  three 
leaves  beyond  the  outer  flower  cluster.  From  the  shoots  near 
the  crotch,  selected  for  bearing  arms  the  next  year,  pick  the 
flower  clusters,  and  strip  off  or  rub  off  all  shoots  and  buds  that 
start  on  trunk  of  vine  below  crotch.  This  latter  is  very  im- 
portant, as  such  shoots,  if  left,  eat  up  the  nourishment  of  the 
land  with  no  return  but  added  work  at  pruning  time. 

"  It  will  be  found  that  the  shoots  at  the  $nds  of  the  arms  usu- 
ally start  first  and  strongest,  and  if  not  clipped  back,  will 
not  allow  the  buds  back  toward  the  crotch  to  start  well,  but 
if  clipped,  all  other  desirable  buds  then  push. 

"In  about  six  to  ten  days  after  the  first  clipping,  a  second 
one  is  usually  necessary,  especially  if  the  weather  is  moist  and 
warm,  and  the  land  rich.  The  first  clipped  shoots,  as  well  as 


140        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

those  not  clipped  the  first  time,  will  need  clipping  back  this 
time,  the  end  buds  on  the  first  clipped  having  pushed  vigorously. 

"At  a  second  year's  pruning  and  others  following,  the  old 
arms  with  all  the  bearing  shoots  on  them  are  cut  off  down  to 
the  new  arms  and  the  new  arms  cut  back  to  lengths  they  can 
fill  with  fruit  and  well  mature.  In  this,  critical  judgment  and 
knowledge  of  capabilities  of  different  varieties  are  more  re- 
quired in  the  pruner  than  in  any  other  of  the  training  work. 
Some  varieties,  such  as  the  Delaware,  cannot  carry  more  than 
three  to  four  arms,  two  feet  long,  while  Herbemont  can  more 
easily  carry  four  arms  each  eight  feet  long,  hence  such  as 
Delaware  should  be  planted  eight  feet  or  less  apart,  while 
Herbemont  and  most  of  the  Post-Oak  grape  hybrids,  should 
be  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  apart.  In  other  words,  each  variety 
should  be  set  that  distance  apart  that  it  will  fill  the  trellis 
with  fruit  from  end  to  end,  and  mature  it  well,  so  as  to  better 
economize  space.  . 

"  By  the  third  year,  the  vine  should  come  to  full  bearing,  and 
be  pruned  with  four  bearing  arms,  two  to  go  each  way  along 
the  lower  wire  of  trellis,  gently  coiling  around  the  wire,  one  arm 
in  one  direction,  the  other  in  opposite  direction,  and  should 
be  in  about  equal  lengths,  so  that  one  firm  tie  with  jute  yarn, 
near  the  ends,  will  be  all  the  tying  the  vines  will  need  —  that 
is,  two  ties  to  each  vine  —  the  least  required  by  any  trellis 
system,  and  the  pruning  is  also  simplest  and  the  results  every 
way  the  best. 

"Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  trellis  are  its  cheapness, 
its  simplicity,  bringing  the  work  up  breast-high  so  that  prun- 
ing, tying,  harvesting,  spraying,  can  be  done  in  an  erect  posi- 
tion, saving  back  strain ;  perfect  distribution  of  light,  heat 
and  air  to  foliage  and  fruit ;  shielding  from  sunscald  and  birds ; 
giving  free  ventilation  and  easy  passage  of  wind  through  the 
vineyard  without  blowing  down  the  trellis  or  tender  shoots 
from  the  vines,  and  allowing  ready  passage  from  row  to  row, 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       141 

without  going  around,  thus  getting  larger  and  better  crops 
at  less  expense  and  increasing  length  of  life  of  vineyard  and  the 
pleasure  of  taking  care  of  it." 

This  method  does  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
grapes  in  northern  vineyards,  and  in  the  South  such  weak- 
growing  sorts  as  Delaware  do  not  thrive  when  so  trained. 
Several  "modified  Munson  methods"  are  in  use  in  the  southern 
states,  but  those  most  commonly  employed  do  not  depart 
greatly  from  the  method  here  described. 

///.   Shoots  horizontal 
Hudson  horizontal. 

There  is  now  in  use  but  one  method  of  training  shoots  hori- 
zontally. In  this  method  the  trellis  is  made  by  setting  posts 
eight  or  ten  feet  apart  and  connecting  them  by  two  slats, 
one  at  the  top  of  the  posts,  the  other  about  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground.  Strands  of  wire  are  stretched  perpen- 
dicularly between  the  slats  at  ten-  or  twelve-inch  intervals. 
One  cane  is  trained  from  a  trunk  from  one  to  two  feet  high  on 
the  trellis;  it  rises  perpendicularly  from  the  ground  and  is 
tied  to  the  top  slat.  The  shoots  push  out  right  and  left  and 
are  tied  horizontally  to  each  wire  as  they  reach  it.  The  cane 
is  usually  allowed  to  bear  about  six  shoots  on  each  side.  The 
grapes  set  at  the  base  of  the  shoots  so  that  the  bunches  hang 
one  over  the  other,  making  a  pretty  sight.  This  method  is 
too  expensive  for  a  commercial  vineyard  but  is  often  used  in 
gardens  and  for  ornamental  plantings.  Only  weak-growing 
sorts,  as  Delaware,  lona  or  Diana  are  adapted  for  this  method. 
Delaware  does  remarkably  well  under  horizontal  training. 
The  use  of  slats  and  wires  in  horizontal  training  are  often 
reversed.  The  alternative  from  the  method  just  described 
is  to  set  posts  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  apart  upon  which  are 
strung  two  wTires  as  for  the  ordinary  trellis.  Perpendicular 


142        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

slats  are  then  fastened  to  these  wires  to  which  the  shoots  are 
tied.  Two  slats,  fifteen  inches  apart,  are  provided  on  each 
side  of  a  fruiting  cane,  which,  with  the  slat  for  the  support  of 
the  cane,  give  five  to  a  vine.  Or  the  vine  may  be  supported 
by  a  stake  driven  in  the  ground. 

In  both  of  these  methods,  a  shoot  must  be  taken  out  from 
the  head  of  the  vine  each  season  for  the  next  season's  fruiting- 
wood.  This  shoot  is  tied  to  the  central  wire  or  slat  and  is 
now  allowed  to  fruit.  Thus  the  vine  starts  each  spring  with 
a  single  cane.  Grapes  are  grown  under  these  horizontal 
methods  chiefly,  if  not  only,  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley 
and  even  here  they  are  going  out  of  use. 

TRAINING  ON  ARBORS,  PERGOLAS  AND  AS  ORNAMENTALS 

The  grape  is  much  used  to  cover  arbors,  pergolas,  lattices 
and  to  screen  the  sides  of  buildings,  few  climbing  plants  being 
more  ornamental.  Leaf,  fruit  and  vine  have  been  favorite 
subjects  for  reproduction  by  ornamental ists  of  all  ages.  As 
yet,  however,  it  is  seldom  seen  in  cultivated  landscapes  except 
to  secure  shade  and  seclusion. 

Grown  for  aesthetic  purposes,  the  grape  is  seldom  fruitful, 
for  the  vines  can  rarely  be  cultivated  or  deprived  of  their 
luxuriant  growth  as  in  the  vineyard.  Nevertheless,  grapes 
grown  as  ornamentals  can  be  trained  so  as  to  serve  the  double 
purpose  of  ornamental  and  fruit-bearing  plant.  Grown  on 
the  sides  of  a  building,  the  grape  often  can  be  made  to  bear 
large  crops  of  choicely  fine  fruit*  The  ancients  had  learned 
this,  for  the  Psalmist  says :  "  Thy  wife  shall  be  like  the  fruitful 
vine  by  the  sides  of  thine  house." 

In  all  ornamental  plantings  on  arbors  or  pergolas,  if  fruit  is 
to  be  considered,  the  permanent  trunk  is  carried  to  the  top  of 
the  structure.  Along  this  trunk,  at  intervals  of  eighteen  inches, 
spurs  are  left  from  which  to  renew  the  wood  from  year  to  year. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       143 

The  vines  should  stand  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  depending  on 
the  variety,  and  one  cane  is  left,  three  or  four  feet  long,  on 
each  spur  when  the  pruning  is  done.  Shoots  springing  from 
these  cover  intermediate  spaces  soon  after  growth  begins. 
Provision,  of  course,  must  be  made  for  a  new  cane  each  season, 
and  this  is  done  by  saving  a  shoot  springing  from  spur  or  trunk 
at  pruning  time. 

The  same  method  of  training,  with  modifications  to  suit  the 
case,  may  be  employed  on  sides  of  buildings,  walls,  fences  and 
lattices.  If  the  object  to  be  covered  is  low,  however,  and 
especially  if  fruit  as  well  as  a  covering  is  wanted,  perhaps  a 
better  plan  is  annually  to  renew  from  a  low  trunk  or  even  back 
to  the  root.  In  this  low  renewal,  a  new  cane,  or  two  or  three 
if  desired,  should  be  brought  out  each  season,  thus  securing 
greater  vigor  for  the  vine,  but  greatly  delaying,  especially 
in  the  case  of  high  walls,  the  production  of  a  screen  of  foliage. 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  MUSCADINE  GRAPES 

The  Muscadine  grapes  of  the  South  are  so  distinct  in  charac- 
ters of  growth  and  fruit-bearing  that  their  requirements  as 
to  pruning  and  training  are  quite  different  from  the  methods 
so  far  given.  Until  recent  years  when  these  grapes  have  be- 
come of  commercial  importance,  it  was  thought  by  southern 
vineyardists  that  the  Muscadines  needed  little  or  no  pruning 
and  some  held  that  pruning  injured  the  vines.  Now  it  is 
found  that  Muscadines  respond  quite  as  readily  as  other  types 
of  grapes  to  pruning  and  training.  Husm/inn  and  Bearing  1 
give  following  directions  for  pruning  Muscadines  : 

"Two  systems  of  training  are  employed  with  Muscadine 
grapes :  (1)  The  horizontal  or  overhead  system,  by  which  the 
growth  is  spread  as  an  overhead  canopy  about  7  feet  above  the 

1  Husmann,  George  C.,  and  Bearing,  Charles.  Muscadine  Grapes. 
Bui  709,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.:  16-19.  1916. 


144        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ground  and  supported  by  posts ;  and  (2)  the  upright  or  vertical 
system,  in  which  the  growth  is  spread  over  a  trellis. 

"In  the  overhead  system  a  single  trunk  is  caused  to  grow 
erect  from  the  ground  alongside  a  permanent  post.  When 
the  vine  has  reached  the  top  of  the  post  it  is  pinched  in  or  cut 
back,  so  as  to  make  it  throw  out  shoots  to  grow  and  spread  out 
from  the  head  of  the  vine  as  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  radiate  from 


FIG.  21.     Rotundlfolia  vines  trained  by  the  overhead  method. 

the  hub.  (The  overhead  training  of  Muscadines  is  shown  in 
Fig.  21;  upright  training,  in  Fig.  22.) 

"  In  the  upright  systems  the  fruiting  arms  are  either  radiated 
from  a  low  vine  head,  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan,  or  they  are  taken 
off  as  horizontal  arms  from  a  central  vertical  trunk. 

"Where  the  vineyard  is  not  given  close  personal  attention 
and  pruning  and  other  vineyard  practices  are  neglected  the 
best  results  will  be  obtained  with  the  overhead  trellis.  More- 
over, such  a  trellis  permits  cross-plowing  and  cultivation  and 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       145 

is  better  adapted  for  grazing  hogs,  sheep,  or  cattle  on  cover 
crops  grown  in  the  vineyard.  On  the  other  hand,  the  careful 
vineyardist  can  expect  the  best  and  earliest  results  from  vines 
on  the  upright  or  vertical  supports.  The  upright  trellis  facili- 
tates pruning,  harvesting,  spraying,  and  intercropping  through- 
out the  life  of  the  vineyard;  it  is  also  easier  to  repair  and 


FIG.  22.     A  Rotundifolia  vine  trained  by  the  6-arm  renewal  method. 

can  be  erected  from  $10  to  $20  an  acre  cheaper  than  the  over- 
head trellis.  The  use  of  both  the  upright  system  and  the  over- 
head trellis  has  netted  the  growers  profitable  returns.  Each 
has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  The  prospective 
grower,  knowing  his  own  conditions,  must  determine  which 
training  system  is  best  suited  to  his  conditions. 

"  During  the  first  year  after  planting,  a  strong  stake  reach- 
ing 4  feet  above  the  ground  at  each  vine  is  sufficient  support. 


146        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

A  trellis  should  be  erected  the  second  season,  though  the  upper 
wires  of  an  upright  trellis  and  the  secondary  wires  of  an  over- 
head trellis  may  be  added  later,  as  the  vines  need  them.  In 
erecting  an  upright  trellis  the  posts  should  be  set  midway 
between  the  vines,  the  distances  apart  varying  with  the  dis- 
tances between  the  plants.  The  end  posts  of  the  rows  should 
be  firmly  braced.  Three  wires  are  generally  used,  placed 
24,  42,  and  from  56  to  60  inches  from  the  ground. 

"  In  erecting  an  overhead  trellis,  the  usual  method  is  to  place 
a  substantial,  durable  post  reaching  7  feet  above  the  ground 
at  each  of  the  permanent  vines.  Rows  of  extra  heavy,  well- 
braced  posts,  running  parallel  with  and  also  at  the  ends  of 
the  rows  of  vines,  are  set  at  the  boundaries  of  the  vineyard. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  ways  of  arranging  the  wires. 
Usually  No.  10  galvanized  wires  are  securely  fastened  to  the 
tops  of  the  boundary  posts  on  the  four  sides  of  a  vineyard  and 
then  are  run  along  and  securely  fastened  on  the  tops  of  the 
inside  post  down  each  row  in  both  directions  as  governor 
wires.  As  needed,  No.  14  wires  2  feet  apart  are  run  parallel 
with  the  governor  wires  until  in  this  manner  the  entire  area 
has  been  covered. 

"A  cheaper  but  less  durable  overhead  trellis  is  made  by 
running  No.  9  governor  wires  in  only  one  direction  and  the 
secondary  wires  only  at  right  angles  to  the  governor  wires, 
the  secondary  wires  being  fastened  to  the  governor  wires 
wherever  they  cross. 

"Some  growers  construct  arbors  entirely  of  wood,  using  slats 
or  poles  instead  of  wires. 

"The  pruning  of  Muscadine  grapes  during  the  first  three 
years  is  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  permanent 
parts  and  adjusting  the  other  parts  of  the  vine  to  the  desired 
training  system  for  future  usefulness.  After  that  the  pruning 
is  primarily  a  matter  of  renewing  the  bearing  surface  and 
keeping  the  vines  healthy,  vigorous,  and  productive. 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA       147 

"During  the  first  season  the  trunk  of  the  vine  should  be 
established.  From  this  the  main  fruiting  branches  are  started 
the  second  season.  These,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
will  bear  a  small  crop  of  fruit  the  third  season.  After  that  the 
purpose  of  pruning  should  be  to  renew  growth,  to  increase  or 
decrease  the  bearing  surface,  and  to  maintain  the  shape  of  the 
vine. 

"Severe  pruning  usually  removes  most  of  the  fruit-bearing 
wood  and  throws  the  vine  into  vigorous  wood  growth.  No 
pruning,  on  the  other  hand,  causes  a  growth  which  is  too  much 
distributed,  weak,  and  incapable  of  bearing  good  crops.  There- 
fore, the  grape  grower  should  study  the  vines  sufficiently  to 
enable  him  to  judge  each  year  the  proper  severity  of  pruning 
for  the  best  results.  This  will  depend  on  the  variety,  the 
age  of  the  vines,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  etc.  Muscadine 
grapes  bear  their  fruit  in  small  clusters.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  maintain  a  large  fruiting  surface  in  order  to  secure  a 
proper  tonnage  of  fruit.  This  is  accomplished  by  developing 
a  series  of  fruiting  arms,  spurring  along  these,  and  lengthening 
them  as  the  vines  become  stronger.  Such  fruiting  arms  can 
be  maintained  for  a  number  of  years,  but  after  a  time  it  is 
desirable  to  renew  them.  This  is  done  by  cutting  out  the  arm 
and  starting  a  new  one  from  a  cane  that  has  been  previously 
grown  for  such  purposes.  It  is  preferable  to  renew  systemat- 
ically only  one  or,  at  most,  two  arms  on  a  vine  each  year. 
This  gradual  renewal  does  not  disturb  the  vigor  of  the  vine, 
but  keeps  it  productive,  healthy,  and  strong.  The  pruning 
can  be  quickly  and  easily  done  if  systematically  practiced  from 
the  time  the  vines  are  started." 

REJUVENATING  OLD  VINES 

When  pruning  and  training  are  neglected,  a  vineyard  soon 
becomes  a  sorry  company  of  halt  and  maimed  vines.     These 


148        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

neglected  vines  can  rarely  be  reshaped  and  restored  to  their 
pristine  vigor.  If  the  old  vines  seem  capable  of  throwing  out 
a  strong  new  growth,  it  is  almost  always  better  to  grow  a  new 
top  by  taking  out  canes  from  the  roots  and  so  rejuvenate. 
The  energy  and  activity  of  Nature  are  seldom  seen  to  better 
advantage  than  in  these  new  tops,  if  the  old  tops  are  cut  back 
severely  and  the  vineyard  given  good  care.  The  new  canes 
grow  with  the  gusto  of  the  biblical  bay  tree,  making  it  diffi- 
cult oftentimes  to  keep  them  within  bounds. 

Usually  this  new  top  can  be  treated  essentially  as  if  it  were 
a  new  vine.  Not  infrequently  the  cane  will  make  sufficient 
growth  and  mature  well  enough  so  that  it  may  be  left  as  a 
permanent  trunk  at  the  end  of  the  first  season.  If,  however, 
the  wood  is  short,  weak  and  soft,  it  should  be  cut  back  in  the 
autumn  to  two  or  three  buds  from  one  of  which  a  permanent 
trunk  can  be  trained  the  next  season  from  which  a  good  top 
can  be  formed  in  another  season.  The  old  top  is  discarded  as 
soon  as  the  new  trunk  is  tied  to  the  trellis.  Old  vineyards  are 
often  rejuvenated  in  this  way  to  advantage  and  return  profits 
to  their  owners  for  years ;  but  if  the  soil  is  poor  and  the  vines 
weak,  attempts  to  renew  the  tops  seldom  pay. 

Occasionally  rejuvenating  old  vines  by  pruning  is  worth 
while.  When  such  an  attempt  is  made,  it  is  best  to  cut  back 
severely  at  the  winter-pruning,  leaving  two,  three  or  four 
canes,  depending  on  the  method  of  training,  of  six,  eight  or 
ten  buds.  The  amount  of  wood  left  must  depend  on  the  vigor 
of  the  plant  and  the  variety.  The  success  of  such  rejuvenation 
depends  much  on  selecting  suitable  places  on  the  old  vine  from 
which  to  renew  the  bearing  wood.  It  requires  good  judgment, 
considerable  skill  and  much  experience  to  rejuvenate  success- 
fully an  old  vineyard  by  remodeling  the  existing  top,  and  if 
the  vines  are  far  gone  with  neglect  it  is  seldom  worth  while. 

Sometimes  old  vines  or  even  a  whole  vineyard  can  be  re- 
juvenated most  easily  by  grafting.  This  is  particularly  true 


PLATE  XII.  —  Diana  (Xf). 


TRAINING   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA        149 

when  the  vines  are  not  of  the  kind  wanted,  and  when  the 
vineyard  contains  an  occasional  stray  vine  from  the  variety 
to  which  it  is  planted.  Directions  for  grafting  are  given  on 
pages  45  to  50.  The  grafted  vine  is  readily  brought  into  shape, 
under  any  of  the  several  methods  of  training,  by  treating  it 
as  a  young  vine. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GRAPE-PRUNING   ON   THE   PACIFIC    SLOPE 

THE  methods  of  pruning  and  training  native  grapes,  dis- 
cussed in  the  last  two  chapters,  do  not  apply  to  the  Vinifera 
grapes  grown  in  the  favored  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  on  the  Pacific  slope.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
Vinifera  or  Old  World  grape  differs  markedly  in  habits  of 
growth  from  the  American  species  so  that  it  would  not 
be  expected  that  pruning  which  applies  to  the  one  would 
apply  to  the  other  types.  The  fundamentals,  to  be  sure, 
are  much  the  same  and  the  different  species  of  grapes  are 
aboutp  equally  subservient  to  the  shears  of  the  pruner,  but 
while  pruning  to  regulate  fruit-bearing  finds  many  similari- 
ties in  Old  and  New  World  grapes,  the  training  of  the  vines 
is  radically  different. 

European  practices  in  pruning  and  training  Vinifera  grapes 
are  so  many  and  so  diverse  that  the  first  growers  of  this 
fruit  in  America  were  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  prune  their 
vines.  But,  out  of  a  half  century  of  experience,  American 
growers  of  Old  World  grapes  have  adapted  from  European 
practices  and  have  devised  to  meet  new  conditions,  methods 
which  serve  very  well  in  the  new  home  for  this  old  grape. 
Since  the  culture  of  the  Old  World  grape  is  centered  in 
California,  almost  confined  to  that  state,  California  practice 
may  be  taken  as  a  pattern  in  pruning  and  training  the  vines 
of  this  species. 

150 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        151 

VINE  PRUNING  IN  CALIFORNIA  l 

The  systems  of  pruning  in  use  in  California  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  according  to  the  arrangement  of  the  arms  on 
the  trunk  of  the  vine.  In  the  commonest  systems,  there  is  a 
definite  head  to  the  trunk,  from  which  all  the  arms  arise  sym- 
metrically at  nearly  the  same  level.  The  vines  of  these  systems 
may  be  called  "headed  vines."  In  the  other  systems,  the 
trunk  is  elongated  four  to  eight  feet  and  the  arms  are  distributed 
regularly  along  the  whole  or  the  greater  portion  of  its  length. 
The  vines  of  these  systems,  owing  to  the  rope-like  form  of  the 
trunks,  are  called  "cordons." 

The  headed  vines  are  divided  according  to  the  length  of  the 
vertical  trunk  into  high,  2-3  feet,  medium,  1-1|-  feet,  and 
low,  0-6  inches.  The  cordons  may  be  vertical  or  horizontal, 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  trunk,  which  is  from  four  to 
eight  feet  long.  The  horizontal  cordons  may  be  single  (uni- 
lateral) or  composed  of  two  branches  extending  in  opposite 
directions  (bilateral).  Double  and  even  multiple  vertical 
cordons  occur,  but  they  are  very  inadvisable  and  have  no 
advantages. 

The  arrangement  of  the  arms  of  a  headed  vine  may  be  sym- 
metrical in  all  directions  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  Such 
a  vine  is  said  to  be  "vase-formed,"  though  the  hollow  center 
which  this  term  implies  is  not  essential.  This  is  the  form  used 
in  the  great  majority  of  our  vineyards  whether  of  wine,  raisin, 
or  shipping  grapes.  It  is  suitable  for  the  "square"  system  of 
planting  and  cross  cultivation.  Where  vines  are  planted  in  the 
avenue  system,  particularly  when  trellised  and  where  cross 
cultivation  is  impossible,  the  arms  are  given  a  "fan-shaped" 

1  The  remainder  of  this  chapter  is  republished  by  permission  from 
Bui.  246,  Calif.  Exp.  Sta.,  Vine  Pruning  in  California,  published  in 
1916  by  F.  T.  Bioletti.  Not  all  of  the  bulletin  is  reproduced,  but  the 
parts  republished  are  transcribed  verbatim.  All  of  the  illustrations  in 
this  chapter  have  been  redrawn  from  Professor  Bioletti 's  bulletin. 


152        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

arrangement  in  a  vertical  plane.  This  arrangement  is  con- 
sidered to  be  essential  for  the  economical  and  easy  working  of 
trellised  vines. 

On  the  vertical  or  upright  cordon,  the  arms  are  arranged  at 
as  regular  intervals  as  possible  on  all  sides  of  the  trunk  from  the 
top  to  within  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  of  the  bottom.  On  the 
horizontal  cordon  the  arms  are  arranged  similarly,  but  as  nearly 
as  possible  on  the  upper  side  of  the  trunk  only. 

Each  of  these  systems  may  again  be  divided  into  two  sub- 
systems, according  to  the  management  of  the  annual  growth 
or  canes.  In  one,  spurs  of  one,  two,  or  three  eyes  are  left  for 
fruit  production.  This  system  is  called  short  or  spur  pruning. 
In  the  other,  long  canes  are  left  for  fruit  production.  This  is 
called  long  or  cane  pruning.  In  rare  cases  an  intermediate 
form  is  adopted  in  which  long  spurs  or  short  canes  of  five  or 
six  eyes  are  left.  In  cane  pruning,  each  fruit  cane  is  accom- 
panied by  one  or  two  short  renewal  spurs.  These  must  also 
accompany  half-long  pruning.  Systems  of  pruning,  when  only 
long  canes  are  left  without  renewal-spurs,  are  not  in  use  in 
California.  In  all  systems,  replacing-spurs  are  left  wherever 
and  whenever  needed. 

Other  modifications  are  introduced  by  the  manner  of  dis- 
posal of  the  fruit  canes.  These  may  be  tied  up  vertically  to  a 
stake  driven  at  the  foot  of  each  vine  or  bowed  in  a  circle  and 
tied  to  this  same  stake,  or  they  may  be  tied  laterally  to  wires 
stretching  along  the  rows  in  a  horizontal,  ascending  or  descend- 
ing direction. 

The  different  systems  differ  therefore  in :  (1)  the  shape, 
length,  and  direction  of  the  trunk ;  (2)  the  arrangement  of  the 
arms;  (3)  the  use  of  fruit  spurs  or  fruit  canes  with  renewal 
spurs ;  (4)  the  disposal  of  the  fruit  canes. 

The  principal  possibilities  of  the  pruning  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


GRAPE-PRUNING   ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE         153 


A.   HEAD  PRUNING  :  VASE-FORM 


1.  High  trunk: 

2.  Medium  trunk : 

3.  Low  trunk : 


with 


(a)  Fruit  spurs  or 

(6)  Half-long  canes  and  re- 
newal spurs  or 

(c)  Fruit  canes  and  renewal 
spurs ;  canes  vertical 
or  bowed. 


B.   HEAD  PRUNING  :  FAN-SHAPED  ;  TRELLISED 

1 .  High  trunk  :    Fruit  canes  and  renewal  spurs  ;    canes  de- 
scending. 

2.  Medium  trunk :    Fruit  canes  and  renewal  spurs ;    canes 
horizontal  or  ascending. 


C.  CORDON  PRUNING 

1.  Vertical:   Spur;   half-long;   cane. 

2.  Horizontal-unilateral :   Spur ;   half-long ;   cane. 

3.  Horizontal-bilateral :   Spur ;   half-long ;   cane. 

All  possible  combinations  indicated  by  this  table  represent 
24  variations.  Some  of  these  combinations,  however,  are  not 
used  and  some  are  rare.  The  most  common  are  shown  in 
Figs.  23,  24,  25,  26  and  27. 

Figure  23  B  represents  a  headed,  vase-formed  vine,  with  a 
medium  trunk  and  short  fruit  spurs.  This  is  the  most  common 
system  used  in  all  parts  of  California  and  is  suited  for  all  small 
growing  vines  which  bear  on  the  lower  bwds,  for  most  wine 
grapes  and  for  Muscats.  The  unit  of  pruning  in  this  case  is  a 
fruit  spur  of  1,  2,  or  3  internodes,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the 
variety  and  of  the  individual  cane. 

Figure  23  A  differs  from  23  B  only  in  the  higher  trunk  and 
longer  arms.  It  is  commonly  used  for  Tokay  and  other  large 


154        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


growing  varieties,  especially  when  growing  in  rich  soil  and  when 
planted  far  apart. 

Figure  23  C  has  the  same  form  of  body  as  A  and  B,  except 
that  the  arms  are  somewhat  less  numerous.  The  unit  of  prun- 
ing is  a  short  fruit  cane  of  four  to  five  internodes,  accompanied 
by  a  renewal  spur  of  one  internode.  It  is  suited  for  vigorous 
table  grapes,  which  do  not  bear  well  on  short  spurs.  It  is  used 
especially  for  the  Cornichon  and  Malaga  in  rich  soil.  This  is 
a  difficult  system  to  keep  in  good  shape  owing  to  the  tendency 


ABC 

FIG.  23.     Forms  of  head  pruning  :  A,  spur  pruning  with  high  trunk;  B, 
spur  pruning  with  medium  trunk ;    C,  half-long  with  medium  trunk. 

for  all  the  vigor  to  go  to  the  growth  on  the  ends  of  the  fruit 
canes.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  vigorous  canes  on  the  renewal 
spurs.  Occasional  short  pruning  is  usually  necessary  to  keep 
the  vines  in  proper  shape. 

Figure  24  A  is  similar  to  23  C  in  form,  but  the  number  of  arms 
is  still  further  reduced  to  2,  3,  or  at  most  4.  The  unit  of  prun- 
ing is  a  fruit  cane  of  2i  to  3i  feet  with  its  renewal  spur.  Ow- 
ing to  the  length  of  the  fruit  canes  they  require  support  and 
are  tied  to  a  high  stake. 

This  method  is  used  in  a  large  number  of  vineyards  with 
Sultanina,  Sultana  and  certain  wine  grapes,  especially  Semillon 
and  Cabernet.  It  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  any  case,  as  it 
has  several  very  serious  defects. 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        155 


The  difficulty  of  obtaining  new  wood  from  the  renewal  spurs 
is  even  greater  than  in  the  system  shown  in  Fig.  23  C.  The 
length  and  vertical  position  of  the  fruit  canes  cause  the  main 
growth  and  vigor  of  the  vine  to  be  expended  on  the  highest 
shoots.  The  renewal  spurs  are  thus  so  shaded  that,  even  though 
their  buds  start,  the 
shoots  make  but  a  weak 
growth.  The  result  is 
that  at  the  following 
pruning  all  the  good 
new  wood  is  at  the  top 
of  the  fruit  canes  of  the 
previous  year,  where  it 
cannot  be  utilized.  The 
pruner  has  to  choose 
then  between  reverting 
to  spur  pruning  and 
getting  no  crop  or  using 
the  weak  growth  from 
the  renewal  spurs  for 
fruit  canes,  in  which 
case  he  may  get  blos- 
soms but  little  or  no 
fruit  of  any  value. 

Other  defects  of  this 
method  are  that  the 
fruiting  shoots  are  ex- 
cessively vigorous  and 
therefore  often  tend  to  drop  their  blossoms  without  setting  and 
the  fruit  when  produced  is  massed  together  so  that  it  ripens 
unevenly  and  is  difficult  to  gather.  It  also  requires  a  tall 
and  expensive  stake. 

Figure  24  B  represents  an  improvement  on  the  last  system. 
It  differs  only  in  the  method  of  treating  the  fruit  canes.     These 


A  B 

FIG.  24.  Forms  of  head  pruning :  A,  ver- 
tical fruit  canes  and  renewal  spurs ;  B,  bowed 
fruit  canes  and  renewal  spurs. 


156 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


are  bent  over  in  the  form  of  a  circle  and  tied  by  their  middle 
part  to  a  stake  which  may  be  smaller  and  lower  than  that  needed 
for  the  vertical  canes. 

This  bowing  of  the  canes  has  several  useful  effects.  The 
change  of  direction  moderates  the  tendency  of  the  vigor  of  the 
vine  to  expend  itself  only  on  the  terminal  shoots.  More  shoots 
therefore  are  formed  on  the  fruit  canes  and  as  their  vigor  is 
somewhat  decreased  they  tend  to  be  more  fruitful.  The  slight 


FIG.  25. 


Head  pruning :  fan-shaped  head  ;  fruit  canes  tied  to  horizontal 
trellis. 


mechanical  injury  caused  by  the  bending  operates  in  the  same 
direction. 

The  excess  of  vigor  thus  being  diverted  from  the  fruit  canes 
causes  the  renewal  spurs  to  form  vigorous  shoots,  which  soon 
grow  above  the  fruit  shoots  and  obtain  the  light  and  air  they 
need  for  their  proper  development.  This  method  is  used  suc- 
cessfully for  certain  wine  grapes  such  as  Riesling,  Cabernet, 
and  Semillon.  It  is  unsuited  to  large  vigorous  varieties  or  for 
vines  on  rich  soil  planted  wide  apart.  In  these  cases  two  fruit 
canes  are  usually  insufficient  and,  if  more  are  used,  the  grapes 
and  leaves  are  so  massed  together  that  they  are  subject  to  mil- 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON   THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        157 


dew  and  do  not  ripen  evenly  or  well.  The  bowing  and  tying 
of  the  canes  requires  considerable  skill  and  care  on  the  part  of 
the  workmen. 

The  body,  arms,  and  annual  pruning  of  the  system  shown  in 
Fig.  25  are  similar  to  those  of  Fig.  24,  with  the  exception  that 
the  arms  are  given  a  fan-shaped  arrangement  in  one  plane.  It 
differs  in  the  disposal  of  the  fruit  canes, 
which  are  supported  by  a  trellis  stretching 
along  the  row  from  vine  to  vine. 

This  method  is  largely  used  for  the  Sul- 
tanina  (Thompson's  Seedless),  and  is  the  best 
system  for  vigorous  vines  which  require  long 
pruning,  wherever  it  is  possible  to  dispense 
with  cross  cultivation.  It  is  also  suitable 
for  any  long-pruned  varieties  when  growing 
in  very  fertile  soil. 

Figure  26  is  a  photograph  of  a  four-year- 
old  Emperor  vine,  illustrating  the  vertical 
cordon  system.  It  consists  of  an  upright 
trunk  4^  feet  high  with  short  arms  and  fruit 
spurs  scattered  evenly  and  symmetrically 
from  the  top  to  within  fifteen  inches  of  the 
bottom.  This  system  is  used  in  many  Em- 
peror vineyards  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Its  advantages  are  that  it  allows  the  large 
development  of  the  vine  and  the  large  number  of  spurs  which 
the  vigor  of  the  Emperor  demands,  without,  on  the  one  hand, 
crowding  the  fruit  by  the  proximity  of  the  spurs  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  spreading  the  vine  so  muck  that  cultivation  is 
interfered  with.  It  also  permits  cross  cultivation. 

One  of  its  defects  is  that  the  fruit  is  subjected  to  various 
degrees  of  temperature  and  shading  in  different  parts  of  the 
vine  and  the  ripening  and  coloring  are  often  uneven.  A  more 
vital  defect  is  that  it  cannot  be  maintained  permanently.  The 


FIG.  26.  Single 
vertical  cordon  with 
ffuit  spurs. 


158        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

arms  and  spurs  at  the  top  of  the  trunk  tend  to  absorb  the 
energies  of  the  vine  and  the  lower  arms  and  spurs  become 
weaker  each  year  until  finally  no  growth  at  all  is  obtained  be- 
low. After  several  years,  most  of  the  vines  therefore  lose  their 
character  of  cordons  and  become  simply  headed-vines  with 
abnormally  long  trunks. 

The  cordon  can  be  reestablished  in  this  case  by  allowing  a 
vigorous  sucker  to  develop  one  year  from  which  to  form  a  new 
trunk  the  next.  The  following  year  the  old  trunk  is  removed 
entirely.  An  objection  to  this  method  is  that  it  makes  very 
large  wounds  in  the  most  vital  part  of  the  vine  —  the  base  of 
the  trunk. 

Figure  27  is  a  photograph  of  a  four-year-old  Colombar  vine, 
illustrating  the  unilateral,  horizontal  cordon  system.  It  con- 


FIG.  27.     Unilateral  horizontal  cordon  with  fruit  spurs. 

sists  of  a  trunk  about  seven  feet  long,  supported  horizontally 
by  a  wire  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Arms  and  spurs  are  ar- 
ranged along  the  whole  horizontal  part  of  the  trunk. 

This  system  accomplishes  the  same  objects  as  the  vertical 
cordon.  It  allows  a  large  development  of  the  vine  and  nu- 
merous fruit  spurs  without  crowding.  It  is  superior  to  the  ver- 
tical cordon  in  the  distribution  of  the  fruit,  which  is  all  exposed 
to  approximately  the  same  conditions  owing  to  the  uniform 
distance  from  the  ground  of  the  fruit  spurs.  All  parts  of  the 
trunk  producing  an  annual  growth  of  wood  and  fruit  are  equally 
exposed  to  light  and  the  tendency  of  the  growth  to  occur  prin- 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        159 

cipally  at  the  part  of  the  trunk  farthest  removed  from  the 
root  is  counteracted  by  the  horizontal  position.  There  is  not 
the  same  difficulty  therefore  in  maintaining  this  form  of  vine 
permanently  that  there  is  with  the  vertical  cordon. 

This  system  should  not  be  used  for  small  weak  vines,  whether 
the  weakness  is  a  characteristic  of  the  variety  or  due  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  It  is  suited  only  to  very  vigorous  varieties 
such  as  Emperor,  Almeria,  and  the  Persian  grapes  when  grow- 
ing far  apart  in  rich,  moist  soil. 

Periods  of  development. 

The  first  year  in  the  life  of  a  vine  is  devoted  to  developing 
a  vigorous  root  system  ;  the  next  two  or  three  years  to  building 
up  a  shapely  trunk  and  head,  and  a  like  period  to  forming  the 
full  complement  of  arms.  At  the  end  of  from  five  to  nine 
years  the  framework  of  the  vine  is  complete  and  should  undergo 
no  particular  change  of  shape  except  a  gradual  thickening  of 
trunk  and  arms. 

There  are,  therefore,  several  periods  in  the  life  of  the  vine 
with  varying  objects,  and  the  methods  of  pruning  must  vary 
accordingly .  These  periods  do  not  correspond  exactly  to  periods 
of  time,  so  it  may  be  misleading  to  speak  of  pruning  a  two-year- 
old  or  a  three-year-old  vine.  One  vine  under  certain  conditions 
will  reach  the  same  stage  of  development  in  two  years  that 
another  will  reach  only  in  three  or  four  years  under  other  con- 
ditions. The  range  of  time  of  these  periods  is  about  as  follows : 

First  period  —  Formation  of  a  strong  root  system  .  1  to  2  years 
Second  period  —  Formation  of  stem  or  trunk     •     •  1  year 

Third  period  —  Formation  of  head 2  to  3  years 

Fourth  period  —  Complete  development  of  the  arms  2  to  3  years 

Total  time  of  formation  of  framework     .     .     .     .  6  to  9  years 

Under  exceptionally  favorable  conditions  the  first  and  second 
periods  may  be  included  in  the  first  year  and  a  completely 
formed  vine  may  be  obtained  in  five  years. 


160        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Before  planting. 

For  planting,  cuttings,  one-year-old  rooted  vines,  or  bench 
grafts  are  used.  In  all  cases,  they  need  some  attention  from 
the  pruner. 

The  usual  way  to  prune  a  good  rooted  vine  of  average  size 
having  a  single  cane  at  the  top  and  several  good  roots  at 
the  bottom  is  to  shorten  the  cane  to  one  or  two  buds  and 
the  roots  to  two  or  four  inches,  according  to  their  size. 
Shortening  the  cane  makes  the  vine  less  liable  to  dry  out 
before  rooting  and  forces  the  growth  from  the  lower  buds  which 
produce  more  vigorous  shoots.  The  roots  are  shortened  so 
that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  ends  being  turned  upwards 
when  planted.  If  they  are  to  be  planted  in  a  large  hole,  they 
may  be  left  as  long  as  five  or  six  inches ;  if  to  be  planted  with 
a  crowbar  or  dibble,  they  must  be  cut  back  to  half  an  inch. 

If  the  rooted  vine  has  several  canes,  all  but  one  should  be  re- 
moved entirely,  and  this  one  shortened  to  one  or  two  eyes. 
The  one  left  should  be  that  which  is  strongest,  has  the  best 
buds,  and  is  the  best  placed.  Where  a  horizontal  cane  is  left, 
it  should  be  cut  back  to  the  base  bud.  Otherwise  the  main 
growth  may  occur  at  a  higher  bud  and  the  vine  will  have  a 
crook  which  will  result  in  a  badly  formed  trunk. 

If  canes  are  growing  from  different  joints,  it  is  usually  best 
to  leave  the  lower  cane  if  they  are  equally  vigorous.  This 
brings  the  buds  from  which  growth  will  come  nearer  to  the 
roots,  and  leaves  less  of  the  original  cutting,  which  are  ad- 
vantages. The  upper  joint  between  the  canes  is,  moreover, 
often  more  or  less  decayed  or  imperfect. 

First  growing  season. 

The  treatment  during  the  first  spring  and  summer  will  de- 
pend on  what  growth  the  vines  are  expected  to  make  and  on 
whether  the  vines  are  staked  the  first  year. 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        161 

With  cuttings  and  with  both  rooted  vines  and  grafts  where 
the  growth  will  be  moderate,  staking  the  first  year  is  unneces- 
sary, though  it  has  some  slight  advantages.  In  these  cases,  no 
pruning  of  any  kind  is  necessary  until  the  winter  following  the 
planting,  except  in  the  case  of  bench  grafts.  The  pruning  in 
the  last  case  is  confined  to  the  removal  of  the  suckers  from  the 
stock  and  roots  from  the  cion.  If  the  stocks  have  been  well 
disbudded  by  the  nurseryman,  few  suckers  will  develop.  In 
moist  soil,  the  cion  roots  may  develop  vigorously  and  must  be 
removed  before  they  grow  too  large,  or  they  may  prevent  the 
proper  development  of  the  resistant  roots. 

The  removal  of  roots  should  usually  be  done  some  time  in 
July.  For  this  purpose  the  hill  of  soil  is  scraped  away  from  the 
union  and  after  the  cion  roots  and  suckers  are  removed  it  is 
replaced.  In  this  second  hilling  up,  the  union  should  be  just 
barely  covered  so  that  the  soil  round  the  union  will  be  dry  and 
unfavorable  to  a  second  growth  of  roots.  Later  in  the  season, 
about  September,  the  soil  should  be  removed  entirely  from 
around  the  union  and  any  new  roots  that  may  have  formed 
removed.  The  union  is  then  left  exposed  to  harden  and  mature, 
so  that  it  will  pass  the  winter  without  injury. 

First  winter  pruning. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  growing  season,  an  average  good 
vine  will  have  produced  from  three  to  five  canes,  the  longest  of 
which  will  be  from  two  to  three  feet  long. 

Soon  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  in  December  or  early  in 
January  the  vines  should  be  pruned.  The  method  is  precisely 
similar  to  that  used  for  rooted  vines  before  planting  except 
that  the  main  roots  are  not  touched.  All  the  canes  are  re- 
moved entirely  except  one.  This  one  should  be  well  matured, 
at  least  at  the  base,  and  should  have  well-formed  eyes.  It  is 
shortened  to  two  eyes.  It  is  well  also  to  cut  off  all  shallow 
roots  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  surface.  This  is  neces- 


162        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

sary  in  the  case  of  grafted  vines  if  any  have  escaped  the  sum- 
mer root-cutting. 

Some  of  the  vines  may  have  made  an  exceptionally  large 
growth.  Such  vines  may  sometimes  possess  a  cane  large  enough 
from  which  to  start  the  trunk  in  the  way  described  later  for 
the  second  winter  pruning. 

Staking. 

If  the  vines  have  not  been  staked  before,  the  stakes  should 
be  driven  soon  after  pruning  and  before  the  starting  of  the  buds. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  alignment  of  the  vineyard,  the  stakes 
should  be  driven  on  the  same  side  of  every  vine  at  a  uniform 
distance.  The  best  distance  is  about  two  inches.  If  driven 
closer  they  may  injure  large  roots  or  even  the  main  underground 
stem  if  the  vines  have  not  been  carefully  planted  vertically  or 
slanting  towards  the  side  on  which  the  stake  is  to  be  placed. 

The  side  on  which  the  stake  should  be  placed  depends  on  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  during  the  growing  season. 
This  side  is  the  leeward.  That  is,  the  stake  should  be  so  placed 
that  the  wind  will  press  the  vine  towards  the  stake  instead  of 
away  from  it.  This  will  much  facilitate  the  work  of  keeping  the 
vine  upright  and  attached  to  the  stake.  If  the  vine  is  on  the 
other  side  the  pressure  of  the  wind  will  stretch  the  string  tight 
and  the  swaying  of  the  vine  will  gradually  wear  the  string  until 
it  breaks,  necessitating  retying.  By  carefully  observing  this 
rule,  very  few  vines  will  require  retying  even  if  weak  material 
like  binding  twine  is  used. 

Second  summer  pruning. 

Before  the  starting  of  the  buds,  in  the  spring  following  the 
planting,  most  of  the  vines  appear  about  the  same  as  when 
they  were  planted.  There  is,  however,  a  very  notable  differ- 
ence, in  that  they  have  well-developed  root  systems  in  the  soil 
where  they  were  formed.  The  result  is  that  they  make  a  much 


GRAPE-PRUNING  Otf   THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        163 

more  prompt  and  early  start  and  will  produce  a  much  larger 
growth  than  they  did  the  first  season.  For  this  reason  they 
require  very  careful  attention  from  the  pruner  during  the  spring 
and  summer  of  the  second  season.  Vines  neglected  at  this 
time,  in  this  respect,  may  make  as  large  a  growth,  but  a  large 
part  of  it  will  be  wasted,  the  vines  will  be  misformed  and  it  will 
require  from  one  to  two  years  longer  to  develop  a  suitable  frame- 
work and  to  bring  them  into  bearing,  even  though  they  are 
properly  handled  during  subsequent  years.  The  more  vigorous 
the  vines,  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  handle  them  properly  dur- 
ing this  period. 

The  main  object  during  this  second  growing  season  is  to  de- 
velop a  single,  strong,  vigorous  and  well-ripened  cane  from 
which  to  form  the  permanent  trunk  of  the  vine. 

This  is  done  by  concentrating  all  the  energies  of  the  vine  into 
the  growth  of  a  single  shoot.  As  soon  as  the  buds  start,  or 
when  the  most  precocious  has  developed  a  shoot  of  a  few  inches 
in  length,  the  vines  should  be  disbudded.  This  consists  in 
rubbing  oft1  with  the  hand  all  buds  and  shoots  except  the  two 
largest  and  best  placed.  The  lowest,  upright  shoots  are  usually 
the  best.  Leave  only  those  which  will  make  a  straight  vine. 
It  is  better  to  leave  less  developed  buds  than  a  shoot  which, 
when  it  grows,  will  make  an  awkward  crook  with  the  under- 
ground stem. 

After  this  disbudding,  the  two  shoots  left  will  grow  rapidly, 
as  they  receive  all  the  energies  of  the  root  system.  When  the 
longest  have  grown  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches,  they  should  be 
tied  to  the  stake.  Unless  this  is  done,  they  are  liable  to  be 
broken  off  by  any  heavy  wind,  owing  to  their  soft,  succulent 
texture.  Only  the  best  placed  and  most  vigorous  of  the  two 
shoots  should  be  tied  up.  If  this  shoot  is  growing  upright 
and  near  the  stake,  this  can  be  done  without  any  danger  of 
injuring  it.  In  this  case  the  second  shoot  should  be  removed. 
If  the  shoot  has  to  be  bent  over  in  tying  it  to  the  stake  it  may 


164        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

be  injured.  In  such  a  case  the  second  shoot  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  until  it  is  known  whether  the  first  has  been  injured. 
In  case  of  injury  the  second  shoot  can  be  tied  up  the  next  time 
the  vines  are  visited  and  the  injured  shoot  removed. 

At  the  tying  up  of  the  reserved  shoots,  all  new  shoots  which 
have  developed  since  the  first  disbudding  should  be  removed. 
The  shoots  should  be  tied  up  loosely,  as  they  are  soft  and  easily 
injured,  and  they  should  be  brought  around  carefully  to  the 
windward  side  of  the  stake. 

The  shoots  will  require  tying  once  more  when  they  have 
grown  another  foot  or  eighteen  inches.  There  will  then  be  two 
ties,  one  at  two  or  three  inches  from  the  top  of  the  stake  and 
the  other  at  about  the  middle.  If  the  vines  have  a  tall  stake 
and  are  to  be  headed  very  high,  another  tying  higher  up  may 
be  needed  later. 

With  vines  making  only  a  moderate  growth,  no  other  prun- 
ing will  be  needed  until  the  winter.  Exceptionally  vigorous 
vines,  however,  may  make  a  cane  eight,  ten  or  more  feet 
long.  Such  a  cane  is  heavy  and  is  very  likely  to  break  the 
ropes  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  stake.  In  this  case  it 
may  break  off  at  the  bottom,  or  at  least  will  form  an  awkward 
crook  near  the  ground  when  it  matures.  In  either  case  it  is 
difficult  to  form  a  good  trunk  the  following  year.  Even  when 
the  ties  do  not  break,  the  cane  will  riot  be  well  suited  for 
the  commencement  of  a  trunk,  as  the  joints  will  be  so  long 
that  it  will  be  impossible  to  leave  enough  well-placed  buds  at 
the  winter  pruning. 

Both  these  difficulties  are  avoided  by  timely  topping.  When 
such  vigorously  growing  canes  have  grown  twelve  or  eighteen 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  stake  they  are  cut  back  about  level 
with  the  stake.  This  is  most  conveniently  done  with  a  long- 
bladed  knife  or  piece  of  split  bamboo.  After  topping,  the 
cane  ceases  to  grow  in  length  and  laterals  start  at  most  of  the 
joints.  It  is  less  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind,  and  the 


PLATE  XIII.  —  But  chess  (Xf). 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        165 

laterals  supply  the  buds  needed  for  forming  the  vine  at  the 
winter  pruning. 

The  result  of  the  second  season's  growth,  then,  has  been  to 
produce  a  single  vigorous  cane  with  or  without  laterals.  This 
is  the  cane  which  is  to  develop  into  the  final  and  permanent 
trunk  of  the  vine.  It  must  not  only  be  large  and  vigorous,  but 
must  be  prpperly  matured.  If  the  vine  is  allowed  to  grow  too 
late  in  the  season,  an  early  frost  may  destroy  the  unmatured 
cane,  and  much  of  the  results  of  the  year's  growth  will  be  wasted. 
Such  a  frost  may  indeed  kill  the  entire  vine.  Grafted  vines  are 
particularly  liable  to  injury  from  this  cause,  as  if  they  are  killed 
down  to  the  union  they  are  completely  ruined.  Ungrafted 
vines  when  killed  to  the  ground  may  be  renewed  from  a  sucker 
next  year.  This  sucker,  however,  is  likely  to  grow  with  such 
vigor  that  it  is  even  more  liable  to  injury  from  an  autumn  frost 
than  the  original  shoot. 

This  late  growth  is  much  more  likely  to  occur  with  young 
vines  than  with  old.  The  old  vines  stop  growing  earlier  be- 
cause their  energies  are  directed  into  the  crop,  and  as  they 
produce  a  larger  amount  of  foliage  they  draw  more  upon  the 
moisture  of  the  soil,  which  therefore  dries  out  earlier. 

Late  growth  of  the  young  vines  must  be  prevented  and  the 
wood  matured  before  frost  if  possible.  This  is  accomplished  by 
means  which  promote  the  drying  of  the  soil  in  autumn.  Late 
irrigations  should  be  avoided.  Cultivation  should  usually 
step  by  mid-summer.  In  very  moist,  rich  soils,  it  is  often  an 
advantage  to  grow  corn,  sunflowers  or  similar  crops  between 
the  rows  of  vines  to  take  off  the  surplus  moisture.  In  some 
cases  it  is  good  practice  to  let  the  summer  weeds  grow  for  the 
same  purpose. 

Second  winter  pruning. 

With  vines  which  have  been  treated  as  described  and  to 
which  no  accident  has  happened,  the  second  winter  pruning  is 


166        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

very  simple.  It  consists  simply  in  cutting  back  the  single  cane 
which  has  been  allowed  to  grow  to  the  height  at  which  it  is 
desired  to  head  the  vine. 

The  vine  so  pruned  consists  of  a  single  cane  which  with  the 
older  wood  at  the  base  reaches  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  stake, 
or  fifteen  inches.  This  if  properly  treated  will  develop  into  a 
vine  with  a  trunk  of  about  twelve  inches,  though. this  length 
can  be  modified  slightly,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

This  cane  consists  of  about  seven  or  eight  joints  or  internodes, 
with  an  equal  number  of  well-formed  eyes  and  an  indefinite 
number  of  dormant  buds,  principally  near  the  base  of  the  cane 
or  junction  of  the  one-  and  two-year-old  wrood.  Only  the  buds 
on  the  upper  half  of  this  cane  will  be  allowed  to  grow.  These 
buds  —  about  four  —  should  give  six  to  eight  bunches  of 
grapes  and  four,  six,  or  eight  shoots  from  which  to  form  the 
spurs  at  the  following  winter  priming. 

With  a  vine  which  has  been  cut  back  to  form  a  high  head, 
the  cane  is  about  twenty-four  inches  long  and  can  be  used  to 
form  a  trunk  eighteen  inches  high,  though  this  height  can  be 
modified  as  in  the  last  case.  As  with  the  shorter  cane,  only 
the  buds  on  the  upper  half  will  be  allowed  to  produce  shoots. 
These  —  about  six  —  should  give  ten  to  twelve  bunches  and 
the  shoots  necessary  for  the  formation  of  spurs. 

In  all  cases  a  full  internode  has  been  left  above  the  top  bud. 
This  is  done  by  cutting  through  the  first  bud  above  the  high- 
est which  it  is  desired  to  have  grow.  This  cut  is  made  in  such 
a  way  as  to  destroy  the  bud  but  to  leave  the  diaphragm  intact 
and  part  of  the  swelling  of  the  node.  This  upper  internode  is 
left  partly  to  protect  the  upper  bud,  but  principally  to  facilitate 
tying.  By  making  a  half-hitch  around  this  internode,  the  vine 
is  held  \^ry  firmly.  If  the  swelling  at  the  node  of  the  destroyed 
bud  is  not  left*  many  vines  will  be  pulled  out  of  the  hitch  when 
they  become  heavy  with  leaves  and  supple  with  the  flow  of 
sap  in  the  spring. 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON   THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        167 

• 

In  tying  the  vines,  no  turns  or  hitches  must  be  made  around 
any  part  except  this  upper  internode.  A  hitch  below  the  top 
bud  will  result  in  a  crook-necked  vine,  as  the  top  will  bend  over 
in  the  summer  under  the  weight  of  the  foliage.  A  hitch  lower 
down  is  even  more  harmful,  as  it  will  girdle  and  strangle  the  vine. 

A  second  tie  about  half  way  from  the  upper  to  the  ground  is 
always  necessary  to  straighten  the  cane.  Even  if  the  cane  is 
straight  when  pruned,  a  second  tie  is  needed  to  keep  it  from 
curving  under  the  pressure  of  leaves  and  wind  in  the  spring. 
For  high-headed  vines  three  ties  are  usually  necessary. 

For  the  top  tie,  wire  is  particularly  suitable.  It  holds  bet- 
ter than  twine  and  does  not  wear.  Even  though  it  is  not  re- 
moved, it  does  no  harm,  as  the  part  around  which  it  is  wound 
does  not  grow.  The  lower  ties  should  be  of  softer  material,  as 
wire  has  a  tendency  to  cut  into  the  wood.  They  should  be 
placed  so  that  the  cane  is  able  to  expand  as  it  grows.  With 
thin  and  especially  with  round  stakes  this  means  that  the  tie 
must  be  loose.  With  large,  square  stakes  there  is  usually  suf- 
ficient room  for  expansion,  even  when  the  twine  is  tied  tight. 

Third  summer  pruning. 

During  the  third  season,  average  well-grown  vines  will  pro- 
duce their  first  considerable  crop  and  develop  the  canes  from 
which  will  be  formed  the  first  arms. 

Such  a  vine,  soon  after  the  starting  of  the  buds  in  spring, 
will  have  one  vigorous  shoot  about  three  inches  long  grown 
from  the  old  wood  and  five  fruit  buds  started  above  on  the 
cane.  All  the  buds  and  shoots  below  the  middle  of  the  cane 
should  be  removed. 

This  will  leave  the  four  or  five  fruit  buds  and  will  give  the 
vine  the  opportunity  to  produce  eight  or  ten  bunches  of  grapes. 
These  buds  will  produce  also  at  least  four  or  five  shoots.  If 
the  vine  is  very  vigorous  and  the  season  favorable,  they  may 
produce  eight,  ten  or  more. 


168        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

When  the  five  shoots  grow,  the  height  of  the  head  will  be 
determined  at  the  next  winter  pruning  by  which  of  the  corre- 
sponding canes  are  left  as  spurs.  If  the  highest  two  canes 
are  cut  back  to  spurs  and  all  others  removed,  the  vine  will 
be  headed  as  high  as  possible,  as  these  two  spurs  form 
the  two  first  arms  which  determine  the  length  of  the  trunk. 
If  the  lowest  two  canes  are  chosen  and  all  of  the  vine  above 
them  removed,  the  trunk  will  be  made  as  low  as  possible. 
Intermediate  heights  can  be  obtained  by  using  some  other 
two  adjacent  canes  and  removing  the  rest.  It  is  often  advis- 
able to  leave  some  extra  spurs  lower  than  it  is  desired  to  head 
the  vine  and  to  remove  these  lower  spurs  the  following  winter 
after  they  have  borne  a  crop.  For  example,  the  three  or  four 
upper  canes  might  be  left,  if  the  vine  is  vigorous  enough,  and 
the  lowest  one  or  two  of  these  removed  at  the  next  pruning. 
This,  however,  is  not  often  necessary  with  properly  handled 
vines  and  is  objectionable  because  it  makes  large  wounds  in 
the  trunk. 

Third  winter  pruning. 

At  the  end  of  the  third  season's  growth  the  vine  should  have 
a  straight,  well-developed  trunk  with  a  number  of  vigorous 
canes  near  the  top  from  which  to  form  the  arms. 

Figure  28  represents  a  wrell-grown  vine  at  this  period.  No 
shoots  have  been  allowed  to  grow  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  and  the  five  buds  allowed  to  grow  above  have  produced 
nine  vigorous  canes.  The  pruner  should  leave  enough  spurs 
to  supply  all  the  fruit  buds  that  the  vine  can  utilize.  The 
number,  size  and  thickness  of  the  canes  show  that  the  vine  is 
very  vigorous  and  can  support  a  large  crop.  It  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  variety  howr  many  buds  should  be  left.  For 
a  variety  whose  bunches  average  one  pound,  and  which  pro- 
duces two  bunches  to  the  shoot,  twelve  fruit  buds  should  give 
about  twenty-four  pounds,  or  about  seven  tons  per  acre,  if  the 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE        169 


vines  are  planted  12  by  6  feet,  as  these  were.     The  number  of 
spurs  will  depend  on  their  length.     Six  spurs  of  two  buds  each 


FIG.  28.     Three-year-old  vine  ready  for  pruning. 

will  give  the  required  number,  but  as  some  of  these  canes  are 
exceptionally  vigorous  they  should  be  left  a  little  longer,  in 
which  case  a  smaller  number  of  spurs  will  suffice. 

When  the  number  and  length  of  the  spurs  are  decided  on,  the 
canes  should  be  chosen  which  will  leave  these  spurs  in  the  most 
suitable  position  for  forming  arms.  This 
position  will  depend  on  whether  we  want 
a  vase-form  or  fan-shaped  vine.  In  the 
first  case,  we  choose  those  which  will  dis- 
tribute the  spurs  most  evenly  and  sym- 
metrically on  all  sides,  avoiding  any  which 
cross  or  point  downwards. 

In  the  second  case,  we  choose  only 
those  canes  which  run  in  the  direction  <3f 
the  trellis,  avoiding  canes  which  stick  out 
between  the  rows.  Downward  pointing 
canes  may  be  used  in  this  case. 

Figure  29  shows  the  vine  after  pruning  for  a  vase-formed 
head.     The  pruner  has  used  two  of  the  strongest  canes  to  form 


FIG.  29.  Vine  of 
Fig.  28  after  pruning 
for  vase-formed  head. 


170        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


two  three-bud  spurs  and  three  of  medium  vigor  to  form  three 
two-bud  spurs.  The  head  is  of  good  shape,  though  some  of  the 
spurs  are  a  little  too  low.  One,  two,  or  three  of  these  can  be 
removed  at  the  following  winter  pruning,  and  the  permanent 
arms  and  head  of  the  vine  formed  from  canes  which  develop 

on  the  two  highest  spurs.  If 
the  vine  were  too  high,  the  head 
could  be  developed  the  next 
year  from  the  three  lowest  spurs 
and  the  upper  part  removed. 

Figure  30  shows  vines  of  the 
same  age  of  practically  perfect 
shape.  Less  spurs  have  been 
left  because  the  vines  were  less 
vigorous.  It  is  easier  to  prop- 
erly shape  vines  which  make 
only  a  moderate  growth  during 

FIG.    30.      Three-year-old   vines:     the  &st  three  seasons.      On  the 

A,  pruned  for  a  vase-formed,  and    other  hand,  very  vigorous  vines 

B,  for  a  fan-shaped  head.  CRn      finajly     be     brought     into 

practically  perfect  shape  and  the  somewhat  larger  and  more 
numerous  wounds  necessary  are  more  easily  healed  by  a  vig- 
orous vine. 

Pruning  after  the  third  winter. 

For  the  pruner  who  understands  the  pruning  of  young  vines 
and  has  brought  them  to  approximately  the  form  represented 
in  Figs.  29  and  30,  the  subsequent  winter  pruning  is  very  simple. 
It  involves,  however,  one  new  idea  —  the  distinction  between 
fruit  and  sterile  wood. 

Up  to  the  third  winter  pruning,  this  distinction  is  not  neces- 
sary ;  first,  because  practically  all  the  wood  is  fruit  wood,  and 
second,  because  the  necessity  of  forming  the  vine  controls  the 
choice  of  wood.  From  this  time  on,  however,  this  distinction 


A 


B 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        171 


must  be  carefully  made.  At  each  winter  pruning  a  number  of 
spurs  of  fruit  wood  must  be  left  to  produce  the  crop  to  be  ex- 
pected from  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  vine.  Besides  these 
fruit  spurs,  it  may  be  necessary  to  leave  spurs  of  sterile  wood 
to  permit  of  increasing  the  number  of  fruit  spurs  the  following 
year. 

This  will  be  made  clear  by  comparing  Figs.   30  A  and  31. 
Figure  30  A  shows  a  vine  at  the  third  winter  pruning  with  two 
fruit  spurs  of  two  buds  each  and  one  fruit  spur  of  one  bud  - 
five  fruit  buds  in  all. 

If  these  five  fruit  buds  all  produce  vigorous  shoots  during  the 
following  summer,  they  will  supply  five  canes  of  fruit  wood 
which  can  be  used  to  form  five  fruit  spurs  at  the  following  win- 
ter pruning,  which  will  be  about  the 
normal  increase  necessary.  Some  of 
these  fruit  buds,  however,  may  produce 
weak  shoots  or  shoots  so  badly  placed 
that  they  would  spoil  the  shape  of  the 
head  if  used  for  spurs.  Other  shoots, 
however,  will  be  produced  from  base, 
secondary  and  adventitious  buds  which, 
while  less  fruitful,  can  be  used  to  form 
spurs  for  the  starting  of  new  arms. 

Figure  31  shows  a  vine  after  the 
fourth  winter  pruning  which  had  devel- 
oped from  a  vine  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  30  A.  From  the  three  fruit 
spurs  left  the  previous  year  four  canes 
have  been  chosen  for  the  fruit  spurs  of 

this  year.  The  old  spur  on  the  left  has  furnished  two  new 
spurs  and  the  two  old  spurs  at  the  right  each  one  new  spur. 
The  pruner,  judging  that  the  vine  is  sufficiently  vigorous  to 
stand  more  wood,  has  formed  two  spurs  from  water  sprouts 
which,  while  not  likely  to  produce  much  fruit  the  first  season, 


FIG.   31.     Four-year-old 
pruned  for  vase-formed 


172        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

will  supply  fruit  wood  for  the  following  year.     The  result  is  a 

very  well-shaped  vine  with  six  almost  perfectly  balanced  spurs. 

These  spurs  will  develop  into  permanent  arms,  some  of  them 

furnishing  finally  two  or  three. 

Figure  32  shows  a  high-headed  vine  of  the  same  age.     It  has 

five  spurs,  of  which  four  are  fruit  spurs  and  one  a  spur  of  sterile 
wood  left  to  shape  the  vine.  The  two  more 
or  less  horizontal  spurs  on  the  right  will  bear 
fruit  the  following  autumn  and  will  be  re- 
moved entirely  at  the  following  winter  prun- 
ing, as  they  are  badly  placed.  The  arms  of 
the  vine  will  then  be  developed  from  the 
three  upright  spurs,  which  are  excellently 
placed. 

Each  year  thereafter  the  same  process  must 
be  followed.  First,  enough  fruit  spurs,  as 
well  placed  as  possible,  must  be  left  to  pro- 

FIG.   32.       Four-     ,          *  c  j 

year-old  vine  pruned  duce  the  crop,  becond,  on  most  vines  sup- 
for  high  vase-formed  plementary  spurs  of  sterile  wood  must  be  left 
to  supply  more  arms  where  they  are  needed, 
and  finally,  when  the  full  complement  of  arms  has  developed, 
to  supply  new  arms  to  replace  those  which  have  become  too 
long  or  are  otherwise  defective. 

Fan-shaped  vines. 

With  headed  vines,  the  treatment  up  to  the  third  winter  is 
the  same  except  for  the  variations  in  the  height  of  the  head. 
At  the  third  winter  pruning,  however,  the  formation  of  the  head 
commences,  and  the  pruner  determines  whether  it  shall  be 
vase-formed  or  fan-shaped.  The  production  of  a  vase-formed 
head  has  already  been  described. 

At  the  third  winter  pruning,  the  vine  should  be  pruned  to 
two  spurs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30  B.  More  vigorous  vines  should 
not  be  given  more  spurs,  as  in  Figs.  29  and  30  A,  but  the  spurs 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        173 


should  be  made  longer,  with  four,  five,  or  even  six  eyes  in  some 
cases.  This  is  in  order  to  obtain  some  fruit,  which  might  not 
be  obtained  from  long  pruning  varieties  by  Leaving  many 
spurs.  With  extremely  vigorous  vines  one  fruit  cane  may  be 
left  at  this  pruning.  The  wires  of  the  trellis  should  be  put  up 
this  year,  if  this  has  not  already  been  done. 

Fig.  33  A  and  33  B  illustrates  the  second  step  in  the  production 
of  a  fan-shaped  head.  This  form  of  head  is  used  only  for  trel- 
Used  vines  and  long-pruned 
varieties.  The  formation 
of  the  head  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  fruit  canes  are 
therefore  conveniently  dis- 
cussed together. 

By  comparing  the  pruned 
vine,  Fig.  33  B,  with  the 
unpruned,  Fig.  33  A,  the 
method  of  pruning  will  be 
made  clear.  The  unpruned 
vine  shows  two  arms,  the 
spurs  of  the  previous  year, 
from  one  of  which  have 
grown  three  vigorous  canes 
and  from  the  other  two 
somewhat  less  vigorous. 
The  pruned  vine  shows  a  complete  unit,  that  is,  a  fruit  cane 
with  its  accompanying  renewal  spur  on  the  vigorous  side  and 
a  spur  for  the  production  of  fruit  wood  for  the  following  year 
on  the  other  side.  If  the  vine  had  been  <more  vigorous  two 
complete  units  would  have  been  left  and  one  or  two  extra 
spurs. 

As  the  form  of  the  vine  is  determined  by  the  renewal  spurs, 
special  attention  should  be  paid  to  their  position.  In  this  case, 
the  middle  cane  on  one  arm  and  the  lower  cane  on  the  other 


FIG.  33.     A,  before  pruning;  B,  after 
pruning. 


174        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

have  been  used  for  renewal  spurs.  This  brings  them  both  to 
the  same  height  above  the  ground  and  determines  the  place  of 
the  permanent  arms.  The  next  year  each  of  these  spurs  will 
furnish  a  fruit  cane  and  one  or  two  renewal  spurs.  The  arms 
will  thus  in  two  or  three  years  be  increased  to  four,  or,  with 
very  large  vines,  to  six.  These  spurs  should  be  chosen  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  plane  of  the  trellis,  that  is,  they  should  not 
project  out  sideways.  Figure  25  shows  vines  of  this  kind  of 
full  size  and  in  full  bearing. 

The  fruit  canes  also  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
direction  of  the  trellis,  though  this  is  not  so  important,  as  they 
can  be  bent  over  to  the  wire  when  tied  up,  and  in  any  case  they 
are  removed  the  next  year. 

Double-headed  vines. 

Some  growers  attempt  to  arrange  the  arms  of  their  vines  in 
two  stages,  one  above  the  other,  forming  double-headed  or  two- 
crowned  vines.  The  method  is  applied  to  both  vase-formed  and 
trellised  vines.  It  is  open  to  the  same  criticisms  as  the  vertical 
cordon,  the  chief  of  which  is  that  it  cannot  be  maintained 
permanently.  The  lower  head  or  ring  of  arms  finally  becomes 
\veak  and  fails  to  produce  wood. 

It  is  easier  to  maintain  in  trellised  vineyards  and  has  some 
advantages,  the  chief  of  which  is  that  it  makes  it  easier  to  keep 
the  vine  in  the  single  plane  and  to  prevent  arms  getting  into 
the  inter-rows.  The  double  trunk  is  not  necessary  and  is,  in 
fact,  a  disadvantage,  as  one  trunk  has  a  tendency  to  grow  at 
the  expense  of  the  other. 

Vertical  and  bowed  canes. 

Figure  24  A  shows  a  long-pruned  vine  in  which  the  fruit  canes 
have  been  tied  vertically  to  a  tall  stake.  This  is  a  method  used 
commonly  in  many  vineyards.  The  unit  of  pruning  is  the  same 
as  in  the  method  just  described,  consisting  of  a  fruit  cane  and 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        175 

a  renewal  spur.  The  framework  of  the  vine  consists  of  a  trunk 
of  medium  height,  with  a  vase-formed  head  consisting  of  three 
or  four  arms.  The  defects  of  this  system  have  been  pointed 
out  on  page  155. 

It  is  used  with  fair  success  with  seedless  Sultanas  and  with 
some  wine  grapes  such  as  Colombar,  Semillon,  Cabernet,  and 
Riesling,  in  the  hands  of  skillful  pruners.  The  results  with 
Sultanina  are  very  unsatisfactory. 

By  this  method,  on  most  of  the  vines,  the  fruit  canes  start 
from  high  up  near  the  middle  of  the  stake,  and  are  therefore 
too  short  for  the  best  results.  The  canes  which  start  from  low 
down  are  in  most  cases  suckers,  and  therefore  of  little  value  for 
fruit  bearing. 

Figure  24  B  shows  a  vine  with  bowed  canes.  The  method  of 
pruning  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  method  just  described. 
The  bowing  of  the  canes,  however,  overcomes  some  of  the 
defects  of  that  method.  It  is  used  regularly  in  many  wine 
grape  vineyards  of  the  cooler  regions.  It  is  unsuited  for  very 
vigorous  vines  in  rich  soil. 

Vertical  cordons. 

In  head  pruning,  the  treatment  of  young  vines  up  to  the 
second  or  third  winter  pruning  is  identical  for  all  systems.  In 
cordon  pruning  the  treatment  for  the  first  and  second  is  also 
the  same.  That  is,  the  vine  is  cut  back  to  two  buds  near  the 
level  of  the  ground  until  a  cane  sufficiently  long  to  serve  for 
the  formation  of  the  trunk  is  obtained. 

In  the  vertical  cordon  the  trunk  is  three  to  four  feet  long  in- 
stead of  one  to  two,  as  in  head  pruning.  T^his  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  have  a  longer  and  more  vigorous  cane  to  start  with.  It 
may  require  a  year  longer  to  obtain  this.  That  is  to  say,  at 
the  end  of  the  second  season's  growth  many  vines  will  not  have 
a  single  cane  sufficiently  developed  to  give  the  necessary  three 
and  one-half  feet  of  well-ripened  wood  and  properly  developed 


176 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


buds.     At  the  second  winter  pruning,  therefore,  it  will  often  be 

necessary  to  cut  the  vine  back  to  two  buds,  as  at  the  first  winter 

pruning. 

Finally,  a  cane  of  the  required  length  will  be  obtained.     The 

vine  is  then  formed  as  already  described  for  the  second  winter 
pruning  of  headed  vines,  except  that  the  cane 
is  left  longer.  When  such  a  vine  is  pruned, 
spurs  are  left  at  intervals  along  the  trunk,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  34.  Each  of  these  spurs  is  a 
fruit  spur  and  is  also  the  commencement  of 
\  an  arm.  The  future  treatment  of  these  arms 

is   the   same   as   that   of  the  arms  in   head 
pruning. 


FIG.  34.  Verti- 
cal cordon,  young 
vine  pruned. 


Horizontal  cordons. 

During  the  first  two  or  three  years,  vines 
which  are  to  be  given  the  form  of  horizontal 
cordons  are  treated  exactly  as  for  vertical 
cordons,  that  is,  they  are  pruned  back  to  two 
buds  each  winter  and  the  growth  forced  by 
disbudding  into  a  single  cane  during  the  summer. 

As  soon  as  a  well-ripened  cane  of  the  required  length  is  ob- 
tained, it  is  tied  to  a  wire  stretched  horizontally  along  the  row 
at  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  inches  from  the  ground. 

For  this  system  of  pruning,  the  rows  should  be  twelve  to 
fourteen  feet  apart  and  the  vines  six,  seven,  or  eight  feet  apart 
in  the  rows.  As  the  cordon  or  trunk  of  each  vine  should  reach 
the  next  vine,  it  will  have  to  be  six  to  eight  feet  long.  The  best 
shape  is  obtained  when  the  trunk  is  all  formed  one  year  from  a 
single  cane.  It  is  necessary,  however,  sometimes  to  take  two 
years  for  the  formation  of  the  trunk.  In  any  case,  the  cane  first 
tied  down  should  reach  at  least  half  way  to  the  next  vine.  The 
following  year  a  new  cane  from  the  end  of  this  should  be  used 
to  complete  the  full  length  of  the  trunk. 


GRAPE-PRUNING   ON    THE    PACIFIC   SLOPE 


177 


In  attaching  the  cane  to  the  wire,  it  must  be  bent  over  in  a 
gentle  curve  and  care  taken  not  to  break  or  injure  it.  The 
proper  form  of  the  bend  is  shown  in  Figs.  27  and  35.  Sharp 
bends  should  be  avoided. 

The  cane  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the  wire,  but  should 
not  be  twisted  around  it.  The  end  should  be  tied  firmly  and 


teprs^S^f  3^-!»tt&#ii^&*  ^^^JB^ 
FIG.  35.     Unilateral  horizontal  cordon  with  half -long  pruning. 

the  rest  of  the  cane  supported  by  strings  tied  loosely  in  order 
to  avoid  girdling  when  the  cane  grows. 

In  the  following  spring,  most  of  the  buds  on  a  good  cane  will 
start.  If  the  cane  is  short  jointed,  some  of  the  shoots  should  be 
removed  and  only  those  shoots  allowed  to  develop  which  are 
conveniently  situated  for  permanent  arms.  If  the  vines  are 
to  be  short  pruned,  the  arms  should  be  developed  every  eight  to 


178        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

twelve  inches  from  a  few  inches  beyond  the  bend  to  the  extreme 
end.  For  long  pruning,  the  arms  should  be  farther  apart, 
twelve  to  twenty  inches.  Shoots  starting  from  the  top  of  the 
cane  and  growing  vertically  upwards  are  to  be  preferred. 

As  the  shoots  develop,  the  strongest  should  be  pinched  re- 
peatedly, if  necessary.  This  will  tend  to  force  the  growth  of 
the  weaker  shoots  and  to  equalize  the  vigor  of  all.  At  the  end 
of  the  season,  there  should  be  from  five  to  ten  canes  growing  on 
each  cordon  of  full  length.  These  canes  are  then  pruned  back 
to  two  or  three  buds,  or  a  little  longer  for  long-pruned  varieties. 

During  the  following  spring  and  summer,  the  vines  should 
be  carefully  suckered  and  unnecessary  water  sprouts  removed. 
Any  shoots  coming  from  the  lower  side  of  the  cordon  should  be 
removed  early  to  strengthen  the  growth  in  the  shoots  on  the 
upper  side.  Such  vines  are  apt  to  become  dry  or  decayed  on 
the  upper  side..  At  the  end  of  this  year,  which  should  be  the 
fourth  or  fifth  from  planting  at  the  latest,  the  cordon  will  be 
fully  formed  and  the  final  style  of  pruning  can  be  applied. 
A  short-pruned  cordon  vine  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  The  arms 
and  spurs  are  a  little  too  numerous  and  too  close  together. 
If  this  vine  required  the  number  of  buds  shown  it  would  have 
been  better  to  have  left  the  fruit  spurs  longer  and  to  have  left 
fewer  and  shorter  wood  spurs. 

The  upper  vine  of  Fig.  35  shows  a  cordon  pruned  half  long. 
This  is  an  excellent  system  for  Malaga,  Emperor,  and  Corni- 
chon  when  growing  in  very  fertile  soil.  It  gives  the  half-long 
fruit  canes,  which  these  varieties  need  to  produce  good  crops. 
The  fruit  canes  may  be  attached  to  a  wire  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  above  the  cordon  or  bent  down  and  tied  to  the  cordon 
itself,  as  in  the  lower  vine  of  the  figure.  The  first  method  is 
the  more  convenient,  but  the  second  is  necessary  where  there 
is  difficulty  in  obtaining  satisfactory  growth  from  the  renewal 
spurs.  When  the  fruit  canes  are  tied  down,  as  indicated  in 
the  lower  vine,  renewal  spurs  may  not  be  needed,  as  vigorous 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON    THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE        179 

shoots  will  usually  be  obtained  from  the  lower  buds  of  the 
fruit  canes. 

Choice  of  a  system. 

In  choosing  a  system,  we  must  consider  carefully  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  particular  variety  we  are  growing.  A  variety 
which  bears  only  on  the  upper  buds  must  be  pruned  "long/' 
that  is,  must  be  given  fruit  canes.  It  should  be  noted  that  many 
varieties,  such  as  Petite  Sirah,  which  will  bear  with  short  prun- 
ing when  grafted  on  resistant  roots  require  fruit  canes  when 
growing  on  their  own  roots.  In  general,  grafted  vines  require 
shorter  pruning  than  ungrafted.  If  pruned  the  same,  the 
grafted  vines  may  overbear  and  quickly  exhaust  themselves. 
This  seems  to  be  the  principal  reason  for  the  frequent  failure  of 
Muscat  vines  grafted  on  resistant  stock.  The  cultural  condi- 
tions also  affect  the  vine  in  this  respect.  Vines  made  vigorous 
by  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture,  and  thorough  cultivation  re- 
quire longer  pruning  than  weaker  vines  of  the  same  variety. 

The  normal  size  of  the  bunch  is  also  of  importance.  This 
size  will  vary  from  one-quarter  of  a  pound  to  2  or  3  pounds.  It 
is  difficult  to  obtain  a  full  crop  from  a  variety  whose  bunches 
are  very  small  without  the  use  of  fruit  canes.  Spurs  will  not  fur- 
nish enough  fruit  buds  without  crowding  them  inconveniently. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  shipping  grapes  may  bear  larger  crops 
when  pruned  long,  but  the  bunches  and  berries  may  be  too  small 
for  the  best  quality. 

The  possibilities  of  development  vary  much  with  different 
varieties.  A  Mission  or  Flame  Tokay  may  be  made  to  cover 
a  quarter  of  an  acre  and  develop  a  trunk  fcrur  or  five  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. A  Zinfandel  vine  under  the  same  conditions  would 
not  reach  a  tenth  of  this  size  in  the  same  time.  Vines  in  a  rich 
valley  soil  will  grow  much  larger  than  on  a  poor  hillside.  The 
size  and  shape  of  the  trunk  must  be  modified  accordingly  and 
adapted  to  the  available  room  or  number  of  vines  to  the  acre. 


180        MANUAL   OF.  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

The  shape  of  the  vine  must  be  such  as  to  protect  it  as  much 
as  possible  from  various  unfavorable  conditions.  A  variety 
susceptible  to  oidium,  like  the  Carignane,  must  be  pruned  so 
that  the  fruit  and  foliage  are  not  unduly  massed  together.  Free 
exposure  to  light  and  air  are  a  great  protection  in  this  respect. 
The  same  is  true  for  varieties  like  the  Muscat,  which  have  a 
tendency  to  "coulure"  if  the  blossoms  are  too  moist  or  shaded. 
In  frosty  locations,  a  high  trunk  will  be  a  protection,  as  the  air 
is  always  colder  close  to  the  ground. 

The  qualities  required  in  the  crop  also  influence  our  choice  of 
a  pruning  system.  With  wine  grapes,  even,  perfect  ripening  and 
full  flavor  are  desirable.  These  are  obtained  best  by  having 
the  grapes  at  a  uniform  height  from  the  ground  and  as  near  to 
it  as  possible.  The  same  qualities  are  desirable  in  raisin  grapes, 
with  the  addition  of  large  size  of  the  berries.  With  shipping 
graoes,  the  size  and  perfection  of  the  berries  and  bunches  are 
the  most  essential  characteristics.  The  vine,  therefore,  should 
be  so  formed  tliat  each  bunch  hangs  clear,  free  from  injurious 
contact  with  canes  or  soil  and  equally  exposed  to  light  and  air. 

The  maximum  returns  in  crop  depend  on  the  early  bearing  of 
young  vines,  the  regularity  of  bearing  of  mature  vines  and  the 
longevity  of  the  vineyard.  These  are  insured  by  careful  at- 
tention to  all  the  details  of  pruning,  but  are  possible  only  when 
the  vines  are  given  a  suitable  form. 

The  running  expenses  of  a  vineyard  depend  in  a  great  meas- 
ure on  the  style  of  pruning  adopted.  Vines  of  suitable  form  are 
cultivated,  pruned  and  the  crop  gathered  easily  and  cheaply. 
This  depends  also  both  on  the  form  of  vine  adopted  and  on 
care  in  details. 

It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  state  for  any  particular  variety 
or  any  particular  location  the  best  style  of  pruning  to  be  adopted. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  give  the  general  characteristics  of 
the  variety  and  to  indicate  how  these  may  be  modified  by 
grafting,  soil  or  climatic  or  other  conditions. 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON   THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE        181 

The  most  important  characteristic  of  the  variety  in  making 
a  choice  of  a  pruning  system  is  whether  it  normally  or  usually 
requires  short,  half-long,  or  long  pruning.  With  this  idea,  the 
principal  grapes  grown  in  California,  together  with  all  those 
grown  at  the  Experiment  Station  on  which  data  exist,  have 
been  divided  into  five  groups  in  the  following  list : 

1.  Varieties  which  require  long  pruning  under  all  conditions. 
-  Clairette  blanche,  Corinth  white  and  black,  Seedless  Sul- 
tana, Sultanina  white  (Thompson's  Seedless)  and  rose. 

2.  Varieties  which  usually  require  long  pruning.  —  Bastardo, 
Boal  de  Madeira,  Chardonay,  Chauche  gris  and  noir,  Colom- 
bar,  Crabbe's  Black  Burgundy,  Durif,  Gamais,  Kleinberger, 
Luglienga,    Marsanne,    Marzemino,    Merlot,    Meunier,    Mus- 
cadelle  de  Bordelais,  Xebbiolo,  Pagadebito,  Peverella,  Pinots, 
Rieslings,  Robin  noir,  Rulander,  Sauvignon  blanc,  Semillon, 
Serine,   Petite  Sirah,  Slancamenca,   Steinschiller,  Tinta  Cao, 
Tinta  Madeira,  Trousseau,  Verdelho,  Petit  Verdot,  Walcheris- 
ling. 

3.  Varieties  which  usually  require  short  pruning.  —  Aleatico, 
Aligote,  Aspiran,  Bakator,  Bouschets,  Blaue  Elbe,  Beba,  Bon- 
arda,    Barbarossa,    Catarattu,    Charbono,    Chasselas,    Freisa, 
Frontignan,  Furmint,  Grand  noir,  Grosseblaue,  Green  Hun- 
garian, Malmsey,  Mantuo,  Monica,  Mission,  Moscatello  fino, 
Mourisco  branco,  Mourisco  preto,    Negro  amaro,   Palomino, 
Pedro  Zumbon,  Perruno,  Pizzutello  di  Roma,  Black  Prince, 
West's    White    Prolific,    Quagliano,    Rodites,    Rozaki,    Tinta 
Amarella,  Vernaccia  bianca,  Vernaccia  Sarda. 

4.  Varieties  which  require  short  pruning  under  all  conditions.  — 
Aramon,  Burger,  Chardonay,  Chauche  gris  and  noir,  Colom- 
bar,  Crabbe's  Black  Burgundy,  Durif,  Black  Morocco,  Mou- 
rastel,  Muscat  of  Alexander,  Napoleon,  Picpoule  blanc  and 
noir,  Flame  Tokay,  Ugni  blanc,  Verdal,  Zinfandel. 

5.  Varieties  of  table  grapes  which  usually  require  half -long  or 
cordon  pruning.  —  Almeria  (Ohanez),  Bellino,  Bermestia  bianca 


182        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

and  violacea,  Cipro  nero,  Dattier  de  Beirut,  Cornichon,  Emperor, 
Black  Ferrara,  Malaga,  Olivette  de  Cadenet,  Pis-de-Chevre 
blanc,  Schiradzouli,  Zabalkanski. 

These  lists  must  not  be  taken  as  indicating  absolutely  for 
all  cases  how  these  varieties  are  to  be  pruned.  They  simply 
indicate  their  natural  tendencies.  Certain  methods  and  con- 
ditions tend  to  make  vines  more  fruitful.  Where  these  occur, 
shorter  pruning  than  is  indicated  may  be  advisable.  On  the 
other  hand,  other  methods  and  conditions  tend  to  make  the 
vines  vigorous  at  the  expense  of  fruitfulness.  Where  these 
occur,  longer  pruning  may  be  advisable. 

The  more  usual  factors  which  tend  towards  fruitfulness  are : 

Grafting  on  resistant  vines,  especially  on  certain  varieties 
such  as  those  of  Riparia  and  Berlandieri ; 

Old  age  of  the  vines ; 

Mechanical  or  other  injuries  to  any  part  of  the  vine ; 

Large  development  of  the  trunk,  as  in  the  cordon  systems. 

The  more  usual  factors  which  tend  towards  vigor  at  the  ex- 
pense of  fruitfulness  are : 

Rich  soil,  especially  large  amounts  of  humus  and  nitrogen; 

Youth  of  the  vines; 

Excessive  irrigation  or  rainfall  (within  limits). 

In  deciding  what  system  of  pruning  to  adopt,  all  these  factors, 
together  with  the  nature  of  the  vine  and  the  uses  to  which  the 
fruit  is  to  be  put,  must  be  considered.  It  is  best  when  the 
vineyard  is  started  to  err  on  the  side  of  short  pruning.  While 
this  may  diminish  slightly  the  first  one  or  two  crops,  the  vines 
will  gain  in  vigor  and  the  loss  will  be  made  up  in  subsequent 
crops.  If  the  style  of  pruning  adopted  results  in  excessive 
vigor  of  the  vines,  it  should  be  gradually  changed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  longer  pruning  with  the  object  of  utilizing  this  vigor  in 
the  production  of  crop. 

This  change  should  be  gradual,  or  the  risk  is  run  of  injuring 
the  vitality  of  the  vines  by  one  or  two  excessively  heavy  crops. 


PLATE  XIV. —  Eaton  (X|). 


GRAPE-PRUNING  ON   THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE        183 

Finally,  each  year  the  condition  of  the  individual  vine  should 
determine  the  kind  of  pruning  to  be  adopted.  If  the  vine  ap- 
pears weak,  from  whatever  cause,  it  should  be  pruned  shorter 
or  given  less  spurs  or  fruit  canes  than  the  year  before.  On 
the  contrary,  if  it  appears  unnecessarily  vigorous,  more  or  longer 
spurs  or  fruit  canes  should  be  left.  Every  vine  should  be  judged 
by  itself.  It  is  not  possible  to  give  more  than  general  directions 
for  the  pruning  of  the  whole  vineyard.  It  cannot  be  well  pruned 
unless  the  men  who  do  the  actual  pruning  are  capable  of  using 
sufficient  judgment  to  properly  modify  their  methods  for  each 
individual  vine. 


CHAPTER  X 
EUROPEAN   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN  AMERICA 

As  we  have  seen,  there  were  many  efforts  to  grow  European 
grapes  in  America  during  the  first  two  centuries  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  country.  The  various  attempts,  some  involving 
individuals,  others  corporations  and  in  early  days  even  colonies, 
form  about  the  most  instructive  and  dramatic  episodes  in  the 
history  of  American  agriculture.  All  endeavors,  it  will  be 
remembered,  were  failures,  so  dismally  and  pathetically  com- 
plete that  we  are  wont  to  think  of  the  two  hundred  years  from 
the  first  settlements  in  America  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Isabella,  a  native  grape,  as  time  wasted  in  futile  culture  of  a 
foreign  fruit.  The  early  efforts  were  far  from  wasted,  how- 
ever, for  out  of  the  tribulations  of  two  centuries  of  grape-grow- 
ing came  the  domestication  of  our  native  grapes,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  achievements  of  agriculture. 

The  advent  of  Isabella  and  Catawba  wholly  turned  the 
thoughts  of  vineyard ists  from  Old  World  to  New  World  grapes. 
So  completely,  indeed,  were  viticulturists  won  by  the  thousand 
and  more  native  grapes,  that  for  the  century  which  followed 
no  one  has  planted  Old  World  grapes  east  of  the  Rockies,  while 
vineyards  of  native  species  may  be  found  North  and  South 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

Meanwhile,  much  new  knowledge  has  come  to  agriculture, 
old  fallacies  have  received  many  hard  knocks  and  chains  of 
tradition  in  which  the  culture  of  plants  was  bound,  have  been 
broken.  In  no  field  of  agriculture  have  workers  received 
greater  aid  from  science  than  in  viticulture.  Particularly 

184 


EUROPEAN   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA      185 

is  this  true  of  the  diseases  of  the  vine.  The  reports  of  the  old 
experimenters  were  much  the  same,  "a  sickness  takes  hold  of 
the  vines  and  they  die."  What  the  sickness  was  and  whether 
there  were  preventatives  or  remedies,  no  one  knew  a  hundred 
years  ago.  But  in  the  last  half  century  we  have  learned  much 
about  the  ills  of  grapes  and  now  know  preventatives  or  remedies 
for  most  of  them.  We  know  also  that  the  early  vine-growers 
failed,  in  part  at  least,  because  they  followed  empirical  Euro- 
pean practices.  Is  it  not  possible  that  with  the  new  knowledge 
we  can  now  grow  European  grapes  in  eastern  America?  The 
New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  put  this  ques- 
tion to  test,  with  results  indicating  that  European  grapes  may 
now  be  grown  successfully  in  eastern  America.  The  following 
is  an  account  of  the  work  with  this  fruit  at  the  New  York 
Station. 

EUROPEAN  GRAPES  AT  THE  NEW  YORK  EXPERIMENT  STATION  1 

In  the  spring  of  1911,  the  Station  obtained  cuttings  of  101 
varieties  of  European  grapes  from  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  the  University  of  California.  The 
cuttings  obtained  were  grafted  on  the  roots  of  a  heterogeneous 
collection  of  seedlings,  five  years  set,  representing  a  half  dozen 
species  of  Vitis.  These  stocks  had  little  to  recommend  them 
except  that  all  were  vigorous,  well  established  and  all  were  more 
immune  to  phylloxera  than  the  Old  World  varieties.  From 
four  to  six  grafts  of  each  of  the  hundred  varieties  were  made 
and  a  stand  of  380  vines  resulted,  the  percentage  of  loss  being 
exceedingly  small.  The  success  in  grafting  was  probably  due 
to  the  method  used,  the  value  of  which  had  been  proved  in 
previous  work  on  the  Station  grounds.  The  method  of  graft- 
ing and  details  of  care  follow : 

1  The  following  account  is  founded  on  work  carried  on  by  the  author 
at  the  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  accounts  of  which  have  been  given  before 
several  horticultural  societies  in  1916,  1917  and  1918. 


186        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Details  of  care. 

In  grafting,  the  earth  was  removed  from  the  plants  to  a 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  The  vines  were  sawed  squarely 
off  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  stock  was  then 
split  for  a  cleft  graft.  Two  cions,  made  as  described  on 
page  46,  were  inserted  in  each  cleft  and  tied  in  place 
with  waxed  string.  Wax  was  not  used  as  it  does  not  stick 
in  grafting  grapes,  because  of  the  bleeding  of  the  stock. 
After  setting  the  cion,  the  earth  was  replaced  and  enough 
more  of  it  used  to  cover  stock  and  cion  to  prevent  evaporation. 
This  method  of  grafting  is  available  to  those  who  have  old 
vineyards.  It  is  so  simple  that  the  veriest  tyro  can  thus 
graft  grapes.  Were  young  plants  or  cuttings  used  as  stocks, 
some  method  of  bench  grafting  would,  of  course,  be  resorted  to. 

The  cultivation  and  spraying  were  precisely  that  given  na- 
tive grapes.  There  has  been  no  coddling  of  vines.  The  fungous 
diseases  which  helped  to  destroy  the  vineyards  and  vexed  the 
souls  of  the  old  experimenters  were  kept  in  check  by  two 
sprayings  with  bordeaux  mixture;  the  first  application  was 
made  just  after  the  fruit  set,  the  second  when  the  grapes  were 
two-thirds  grown.  Some  years  a  third  spraying  with  a  tobacco 
concoction  was  used  to  keep  thrips  in  check.  Phylloxera  was 
present  in  the  vineyard  but  none  of  the  varieties  seemed  to 
suffer  from  this  pest.  The  stocks  used  were  not  those  best 
suited  either  to  the  vines  grafted  on  them  or  to  resist  phylloxera. 
Unquestionably  some  of  the  standard  sorts  used  in  France  and 
California  from  Vitis  rupestris  or  Vitis  wlpina,  or  hybrids  of 
these  species,  would  give  better  results.  From  theoretical 
consideration,  it  would  seem  that  the  Vitis  wlpina  stocks 
should  be  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  eastern  America. 

It  was  thought  by  the  old  experimenters  that  European  grapes 
failed  in  New  York  because  of  unfavorable  climatic  condi- 
tions. It  was  said  that  the  winters  were  too  cold  and  the  sum- 


EUROPEAN   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN   AMERICA      187 

mers  too  hot  and  dry  for  this  grape.  During  the  years  the 
Station  vineyard  of  Viniferas  has  been  in  existence,  there  have 
been  stresses  of  all  kinds  of  weather  to  which  the  variable 
climate  of  New  York  is  subject.  Two  winters  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly cold,  killing  peach  and  pear  trees;  one  summer 
gave  the  hottest  weather  and  hottest  day  in  twenty-five  years ; 
the  vines  have  withstood  two  severe  summer  droughts  and  three 
cold,  wet  summers.  These  test  seasons  have  proved  that  Euro- 
pean grapes  will  stand  the  climate  of  New  York  as  well  as  the 
native  varieties  except  in  the  matter  of  cold ;  they  must  have 
winter  protection. 

To  growers  of  American  grapes,  the  extra  work  of  winter 
protection  seems  to  be  an  insuperable  obstacle.  The  experience 
of  several  seasons  in  New  York  shows  that  winter  protection 
is  a  cheap  and  simple  matter.  Two  methods  have  been  used  ; 
vines  have  been  covered  with  earth  and  others  have  been 
wrapped  with  straw.  The  earth  covering  is  cheaper  and  more 
efficient.  The  vines  are  pruned  and  placed  full  length  on  the 
ground  and  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  earth.  The  cost  of 
winter  protection  will  run  from  two  to  three  cents  a  vine. 
Since  European  vines  are  much  more  productive  than  those 
of  American  grapes,  the  added  cost  of  winter  protection  is 
more  than  offset  by  the  greater  yield  of  grapes.  Trellising, 
also,  is  simpler  and  less  expensive  for  the  European  grapes, 
helping  further  to  offset  the  cost  of  winter  protection. 

Pruning. 

It  is  apparent  at  once  that  European,  grapes  must  have 
special  treatment  in  pruning  if  they  are  to  be  laid  on  the  ground 
annually.  Several  modifications  of  European  and  California 
practices  can  be  employed  in  the  East  to  bring  the  plants  in 
condition  for  winter  laying-down.  All  methods  of  pruning 
must  have  this  in  common;  new  wood  must  be  brought  up 
from  the  base  of  the  plant  every  year  to  permit  bending  the 


188        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

plant.  This  can  be  done  by  leaving  a  replacing  spur  at  the 
base  of  the  trunk.  If  two-eye  cions  are  used  when  the  plants 
are  grafted  and  both  buds  grow,  the  shoot  from  the  upper 
can  be  used  to  form  the  main  trunk,  while  that  from  the  lower 
bud  will  supply  the  replacing  spur.  Each  year  all  but  one  of 
the  canes  coming  from  this  spur  are  removed  and  the  remaining 
one  is  cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds  until  the  main  trunk  begins 
to  be  too  stiff  to  bend  down  readily,  then  one  cane  from  the  spur 
is  left  for  a  new  trunk  and  another  is  pruned  for  a  new  renewal 
spur. 

The  main  trunk  is  carried  up  only  to  the  lower  wire  of  the 
trellis.  At  the  winter  pruning,  two  one-year  canes  are  selected 
to  be  tied  along  this  wire,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  two  renewal 
spurs  chosen  for  tying  up  and  new  renewal  spurs  left.  For 
the  best  production,  different  varieties  require  different  lengths 
of  fruit  canes,  but  the  work  at  Geneva  has  not  progressed  far 
enough  so  that  recommendations  can  be  made  for  particular 
varieties.  It  has  been  found  best,  however,  to  prune  weak 
vines  heavily  and  vigorous  ones  lightly.  Under  normal  condi- 
tions, from  four  to  eight  buds  are  left  on  each  cane,  depending 
on  the  vigor  of  the  vine.  With  some  of  the  older  seedlings  used 
for  stocks  in  1911  which  were  so  large  that  two  cions  were  used, 
and  in  many  of  those  where  the  roots  seemed  to  have  sufficient 
vigor  to  support  the  larger  top,  two  trunks  were  formed,  one 
from  each  graft.  By  spreading  these  into  a  V  and  making  the 
inner  arms  shorter,  very  satisfactory  results  were  secured. 

The  type  of  growth  in  Vinifera  is  different  from  that  of 
native  grapes.  The  young  shoots  which  spring  from  the  one- 
year  canes,  instead  of  trailing  to  the  ground  or  running  out 
along  the  trellis  wires,  grow  erect.  Advantage  must  be  taken 
of  this  in  the  pruning  system  adopted  in  the  East.  The  canes 
and  the  renewal  spurs  as  described  above  are  tied  along  the 
lower  wire ;  then  the  young  shoots  which  come  from  these 
grow  upward  to  the  second  wire.  When  the  shoots  are  four  to 


EUROPEAN   GRAPES   IN   EASTERN    AMERICA      189 

six  inches  above  this  wire,  they  are  pinched  off  just  above  the 
wire  and  any  which  have  not  already  fastened  themselves  are 
tied  to  prevent  the  wind  breaking  them  off.  At  the  same  time, 
if  any  of  the  axial  buds  on  the  shoots  have  begun  to  form  second- 
ary shoots,  they  are  rubbed  off,  beginning  with  the  node  next 
above  the  upper  cluster  and  going  down  to  the  old  cane.  This 
gives  the  cluster  more  room  and  better  light.  Soon  after  the 
first  heading-back,  the  upper  buds  of  the  young  shoot  start 
lateral  growth.  The  secondary  branches  usually  grow  upright 
and  when  they  are  several  inches  high  they  are  topped  with  a 
sickle.  This  heading-back  results  in  stockier  and  more  mature 
canes  for  the  following  year,  and  if  properly  done  adds  to  the 
fruitfulness  of  the  vine  and  the  fruit  matures  better. 

General  considerations. 

The  grower  of  European  grapes  grafted  on  American  vines 
may  be  prepared  to  be  surprised  at  the  growth  the  vines  make. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  season,  the  grafts  attain  the  magnitude 
of  full-sized  vines ;  the  second  season  they  begin  to  fruit  more 
or  less  abundantly,  and  the  third  year  they  produce  approxi- 
mately the  same  number  of  bunches  as  a  Concord  or  Niagara 
vine ;  and,  as  the  bunches  of  most  varieties  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  American  grapes,  the  yield,  therefore,  is  greater. 
The  European  varieties,  also,  may  be  set  more  closely  than 
the  American  sorts,  since  they  are  seldom  such  rampant 
growers. 

It  is  too  early  to  reason  from  this  short  experiment  that  we 
are  to  grow  varieties  of  European  grapes  commonly  in  the  East, 
but  the  behavior  of  the  vines  under  discussion  seems  to  indicate 
that  we  may  do  so.  At  the  New  York  Station,  the  European 
varieties  are  as  vigorous  and  thrifty  as  American  vines  and 
quite  as  easily  managed.  Why  may  we  not  grow  these  grapes 
if  we  protect  them  from  phylloxera,  fungi  and  cold  ?  In  Europe, 
there  are  varieties  of  grapes  for  nearly  every  soil  and  condition 


190        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

in  the  southern  half  of  the  continent.  In  eastern  Europe  and 
western  Asia,  the  vines  must  be  protected  just  as  they  must  be 
protected  here.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  from  the  many 
sorts  selected  to  meet  the  various  conditions  of  Europe,  we  shall 
be  able  to  find  kinds  to  meet  the  diverse  soils  and  climates 
of  this  continent.  And  here  we  have  one  of  the  chief  reasons 
for  wishing  to  grow  these  grapes  that  American  grape-growing 
may  not  be  so  localized  as  at  present.  Probably  we  shall  find 
that  European  grapes  can  be  grown  under  a  greater  diversity 
of  conditions  than  native  varieties. 

The  culture  of  European  grapes  in  the  East  gives  this  region 
essentially  a  new  fruit.  If  any  considerable  degree  of  success 
attends  their  culture,  wine-making  in  eastern  America  will  be 
revolutionized,  for  the  European  grapes  are  far  superior  to 
the  native  sorts  for  this  purpose.  Varieties  of  these  grapes 
have  a  higher  sugar-  and  solid-content  than  do  those  of  the 
American  species  and  for  this  reason,  as  a  rule,  keep  longer. 
We  may  thus  expect  that  through  these  grapes  the  season  for 
this  fruit  will  be  extended.  The  European  varieties  are  better 
flavored,  possessing  a  more  delicate  and  a  richer  vinous  flavor, 
a  more  agreeable  aroma,  and  are  lacking  in  the  acidity  and  the 
obnoxious  foxy  taste  of  many  American  grapes.  Many  con- 
sumers of  fruit  will  like  them  better  and  the  demand  for  grapes 
thus  will  be  increased. 

The  advent  of  the  European  grape  in  the  vineyards  of  eastern 
America  ought  to  greatly  increase  the  production  of  hybrids 
between  this  species  and  the  American  species  of  grapes.  As 
we  have  seen,  there  are  many  such  hybrids,  but  curiously 
enough  scarcely  more  than  a  half  dozen  varieties  of  European 
grapes  have  been  used  in  crossing.  Most  of  these  have  been 
greenhouse  grapes  and  not  those  that  could  be  expected  to 
give  best  results  for  vineyard  culture.  As  we  come  to  know 
the  varieties  best  adapted  to  American  conditions,  we  ought 
to  be  able  to  select  European  parents  to  better  advantage 


PLATE  XV. —  Eclipse  (Xf). 


EUROPEAN    GRAPES   IN   EASTERN    AMERICA      191 

than  we  have  done  in  the  past  and  by  using  them  produce 
better  hybrid  sorts. 

Varieties. 

From  the  eighty-five  -varieties  of  European  grapes  now 
fruiting  on  the  grounds  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  the  following  are  named  as  worth  trying  in  the 
East  for  table  grapes :  Actoni,  Bakator,  Chasselas  Golden, 
Chasselas  Rose,  Feher  Szagos,  Gray  Pinot,  Lignan  Blanc, 
Malvasia,  Muscat  "Hamburg,  Palomino  and  Rosaki.  These 
and  other  European  grapes  are  described  in  Chapter  XVIII ; 
Chasselas  Golden  and  Malvasia  are  illustrated  in  Plate  V. 


CHAPTER  XI 
GRAPES  UNDER   GLASS 

GRAPE-GROWING  under  glass  is  on  the  decline  in  America. 
Forty  or  fifty  years  ago  the  industry  was  a  considerable  one, 
grapes  being  rather  commonly  grown  near  all  large  cities  for 
the  market,  and  nearly  every  large  estate  possessing  a  range  of 
glass  had  a  grapery.  But  grapes  are  better  and  more  cheaply 
grown  in  Europe  than  in  America,  and  the  advent  of  quick 
transportation  permits  English,  French  and  Belgian  grape- 
growers  to  send  their  wares  to  American  markets  more  cheaply 
than  they  can  be  grown  at  home.  For  the  present,  the  world 
war  has  stopped  the  importation  of  luxuries  from  Europe, 
and  American  gardeners  ought  to  find  the  culture  of  grapes 
under  glass  profitable;  they  may  expect  also  to  be  able  to 
hold  the  markets  for  many  years  to  come  because  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Belgian  houses  and  the  shortage  of  labor  in  Europe 
resulting  from  the  war. 

Amateur  gardeners  ought  never  to  let  the  cufture  of  grapes 
under  glass  wane,  since  the  hot-house  grape  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  gardener's  skill.  Certainly  the  forcing  of  no  other 
fruit  yields  such  generous  rewards.  Grapes  grown  under 
glass  are  handsomer  in  appearance  and  better  in  quality  than 
those  grown  out-of-doors.  The  clusters  often  attain  enormous 
size,  a  weight  of  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  being  not  uncommon. 
The  impression  prevails  that  to  grow  grapes  under  glass,  one 
must  have  expensive  houses;  this  is  not  necessary,  and  a hot- 
house grapes"  is  a  misnomer,  the  fruit  really  being  grown  in 

192 


GRAPES    UNDER    GLASS  193 

cold  or  relatively  cool  houses  which  need  not  be  expensive. 
Grapes  are  grown  under  glass  with  greater  ease  and  certainty 
than  is  imagined  by  those  who  form  the  opinion  from  buying 
the  fruit  at  high  prices  in  delicatessen  stores.  A  grapery  need 
not  be  an  expensive  luxury,  and  the  culture  of  grapes  under 
glass  can  be  recommended  to  persons  of  moderate  means  who 
are  looking  for  a  horticultural  hobby. 

THE  GRAPERY 

Almost  any  of  the  various  modifications  of  greenhouses 
can  be  adapted  to  growing  grapes.  Firms  constructing  green- 
houses usually  have  had  experience  in  building  graperies,  and, 
as  a  rule,  it  will  pay  to  have  these  professional  builders  put  up 
the  house.  If  the  actual  work  is  not  done  by  a  builder,  it  is 
possible  to  purchase  plans  and  estimates,  from  which,  if  suffi- 
ciently detailed,  local  builders  can  work.  On  small  places 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  lean-to  houses  are  most  suitable, 
being  inexpensive  and  furnishing  protection  from  prevailing 
winds.  These  lean-tos  should  face  the  south  and  may  be 
built  against  the  stable,  garage  or  other  building ;  or  better, 
a  brick  or  stone  wall  to  the  north  may  be  erected.  It  is  possible 
to  build  a  small  grapery  as  a  lean-to  out  of  hot-house  sash. 

In  commercial  establishments  and  for  large  estates,  where 
the  grapery  must  be  more  or  less  ornamental,  a  span-roof  house 
is  rather  better  adapted  to  the  grapery  than  a  lean-to,  especially 
if  the  house  is  not  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  grapes  early 
in  the  season.  On  account  of  the  exposure  of  the  span-roof 
house  on  all  sides,  however,  rather  more  skill  must  be  exercised 
in  growing  grapes  in  them  than  in  the  better  protected  lean-to 
grapery.  Whatever  the  house,  it  must  be  so  constructed  as 
to  furnish  an  abundance  of  light,  a  requisite  in  which  much  is 
gained  by  having  large-size  glasses  for  the  glazing.  The  glass 
must  be  of  the  best  quality,  otherwise  the  foliage  and  fruit 


194        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

may  be  blistered  by  the  sun's  rays  being  focused  through 
defective  spots. 

Light,  heat,  moisture  and  good  ventilation  are  all  required 
in  the  grapery.  Brick  or  stone  are  preferable  to  woodwork, 
as  heat  and  moisture  in  the  grapery  are  quickly  destructive 
to  wood  foundations.  If  wood  is  used,  only  the  most  durable 
kinds  should  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  house.  The 
under  structure  of  masonry  or  of  wood  should  be  low,  not  higher 
than  18  inches  or  2  feet  before  the  superstructure  of  glass 
begins.  The  grapery  must  be  well  ventilated.  There  must 
be  large  ventilators  at  the  peak  of  the  house  and  small  ones 
just  above  the  foundation  walls  or  in  the  foundation  walls 
themselves.  The  ventilation  should  be  such  that  the  house 
can  be  kept  free  from  draughts  or  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, as  the  grape  under  glass  is  a  sensitive  plant,  and  subject 
to  mildew.  Plenty  of  air,  therefore,  is  an  absolute  necessity 
to  the  grapes,  especially  during  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
lower  ventilators  in  graperies  are  seldom  much  used  until  the 
grapes  begin  to  color,  at  which  time  the  new  growth,  foliage 
and  fruit  are  hardened,  but  from  this  time  on  upper  and  lower 
ventilators  must  be  so  manipulated  that  the  houses  are  always 
generously  aired. 

Grapes  can  be  forced  in  cold  houses  without  the  aid  of  arti- 
ficial heat  and  formerly  these  cold  graperies  were  very  popular ; 
but  in  the  modern  houses  for  growing  this  fruit,  artificial  heat 
is  now  considered  a  necessity,  even  though  the  heating  appara- 
tus may  seldom  be  in  use.  For  a  finely  finished  product,  a 
little  heat  to  warm  the  room  and  dry  the  atmosphere  may  be 
absolutely  necessary  at  a  critical  time,  this  often  saving  a 
house  of  grapes.  Of  heating  apparatus,  little  need  be  said. 
Standard  boilers  for  heating  greenhouses  with  either  steam 
or  hot  water  are  now  to  be  purchased  of  many  designs  for  almost 
every  style  and  condition  of  house.  Since  the  grapery  seldom 
requires  high  heat,  hot  water  is  rather  to  be  preferred  to  steam, 


GRAPES    UNDER   GLASS  195 

although  there  is  no  objection  to  steam,  especially  if  the  grapery 
is  a  part  of  a  large  range  of  glass. 

The  border. 

The  border  in  which  the  vines  are  to  be  planted  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  grapery.  All  subsequent  efforts  fail  if 
the  border  lacks  in  two  imperatives,  good  drainage  and  a  soil 
that  is  rich  but  not  too  rich.  The  grapery  must  be  built  on 
well-drained  land  or  elevated  above  the  ground  to  permit  the 
construction  of  a  properly  drained  border.  "Border/'  in 
the  sense  of  its  being  a  strip  or  a  narrow  bed  just  inside  the 
house,  is  now  a  misnomer,  though  the  name  undoubtedly 
comes  from  the  fact  that  narrow  beds  inside  the  house  were 
at  one  time  used  in  which  to  plant  vines.  The  border  in  a 
modern  grapery  now  occupies  all  of  the  ground  surface  inside 
the  house  and  may  extend  several  feet  outside  the  house. 

Much  skill  is  required  in  building  the  border.  A  good  formula 
is  :  Six  parts  loamy  turf  from  an  old  pasture ;  one  part  of  well- 
rotted  cow  manure;  one  part  of  old  plaster  and  one  part  of 
ground  bone.  These  ingredients  are  composted  and  if  the 
work  is  well  done  will  meet  very  well  the  soil  and  food  require- 
ments of  the  grape.  This  formula  can  be  varied  according  to 
soil  conditions  and  somewhat  in  accordance  with  the  variety 
planted.  Unless  natural  drainage  is  well-nigh  perfect,  the 
border  must  be  under-drained  with  tile  and  in  any  case  a  layer 
of  old  brick  or  stone  is  needful  to  make  certain  that  the  drainage 
is  perfect.  At  least  two  feet,  better  three  feet,  of  the  border 
compost  should  be  placed  above  the  drainage  material.  In  a 
border  made  as  described,  the  grape  finds  ample  root-run,  but 
not  too  much,  as  in  a  surprisingly  short  time  roots  are  found 
throughout  all  parts  of  this  extensive  border. 

The  care  of  the  border  is  a  matter  of  considerable  moment 
and  varies,  of  course,  with  those  in  charge.  The  usual  procedure 
is  to  spade  the  outside  border,  if  the  border  ^xtends  outside, 


196        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

before  winter,  after  which  it  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  well- 
rotted  manure,  without  any  particular  attempt  having  been 
made  to  keep  out  the  frost,  as  a  certain  amount  of  freezing 
outside  of  the  house  is  held  to  be  beneficial.  The  inside  border 
must  be  spaded  just  before  the  vines  are  started  in  the  spring, 
having  been  covered  previously  with  well-rotted  manure. 
The  time  at  which  the  vines  are  to  be  started  in  growth  is 
determined  by  whether  an  early  or  a  late  crop  of  grapes 
is  wanted.  For  an  early  crop,  the  vines  must  be  started 
early  in  February ;  for  a  late  crop,  a  month  or  even  two 
months  later  suffices.  So  started,  the  first  crop  of  grapes 
comes  on  in  June  or  July,  the  later  ones  following  in  August 
or  September. 

It  is  related  that  Napoleon  I,  to  secure  saltpetre  for  making 
gunpowder,  composted  "  filth,  dead  animals,  urine  and  offal 
with  alternate  Jayers  of  turf  and  lime  mortar/'  and  asserted 
that  "a  nitre-bed  is  the  very  pattern  of  a  vine-border "  and 
that  "when  the  materials  have  been  turned  over  and  over 
again  for  a  year  or  two  they  are  in  exactly  the  proper  state 
to  yield  either  gunpowder  or  grapes."  Napoleon's  niter-bed 
is  not  now  considered  a  good  model  for  a  grape-border,  as  the 
fruit  produced  in  so  rich  a  soil,  though  abundant,  is  coarse  and 
poorly  flavored,  and  the  vines  complete  their  own  destruction 
by  over-bearing.  Gardeners  hold  that  a  grape-border  may  be 
too  rich  in  plant-food,  especially  too  rich  in  nitrogen. 

VARIETIES 

Out  of  the  2000  or  more  Vinifera  grapes,  probably  not  more 
than  a  score  are  grown  under  glass,  and  of  these  but  a  half 
dozen  are  commonly  grown.  Black  varieties  have  the  prefer- 
ence for  indoors,  especially  if  grown  for  the  market,  where 
they  bring  the  highest  prices.  They  are  also  as  a  rule  more 
easily  handled  indoors  than  the  white  sorts.  However,  as  we 


GRAPES    UNDER   GLASS  197 

shall  see,  one  or  two  white  kinds  are  indispensable  in  a  house 
of  any  considerable  size. 

Of  black  grapes,  Black  Hamburg  carries  the  palm  of  merit 
because  it  is  most  easily  grown,  best  stands  neglect,  is  a  heavy 
producer,  sets  its  fruit  well,  the  grapes  mature  early;  and, 
in  particular,  it  meets  the  requirements  of  the  unskilled  gardener 
better  than  any  other  grape.  The  clusters  are  not  as  large 
and  the  flavor  not  as  good  as  that  of  some  other  sorts. 

Muscat  of  Alexandria  is  the  best  of  the  white  varieties.  It 
is,  however,  a  hard  grape  to  handle  since  it  requires  a  high  tem- 
perature to  bring  it  to  perfection,  is  a  little  shy  in  setting  fruit 
and  the  grapes  are  not  very  certain  in  coming  to  maturity; 
it  also  requires  a  long  season.  A  good  quality  is  that  it  may 
be  kept  long  after  cutting,  much  longer  than  Black  Hamburg. 

For  an  earlier  white  grape,  Buckland  Sweetwater  has  much 
to  recommend  it;  it  ripens  from  two  to  three  weeks  earlier 
than  Muscat  of  Alexandria  and  is  much  more  easily  grown. 
It  is  good  in  quality  but  not  of  high  quality.  Buckland  Sweet- 
water  may  be  well  grown  in  the  house  with  Black  Hamburg, 
whereas  it  is  almost  impossible  to  grow  Muscat  of  Alexandria 
in  the  same  house  with  Black  Hamburg. 

Muscat  Hamburg  is  a  cross  between  Black  Hamburg  and 
Muscat  of  Alexandria,  and  is  an  intermediate  in  most  fruit 
characters  between  these  two  standard  sorts.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, very  generally  grown,  although  it  well  deserves  to  be 
because  of  its  large,  beautiful,  tapering  clusters  of  black  grapes 
of  finest  quality. 

Grizzly  Frontignan  adds  novelty  to  luxury  in  the  list  of 
indoor  grapes.  The  fruits  are  mottled  pink  in  color,  deepening 
sometimes  to  a  dark  shade  of  pink,  and  are  borne  in  long,  slender 
clusters.  The  grapes  ripen  early  and  are  unsurpassed  in  quality 
but  are,  all  in  all,  rather  difficult  to  grow. 

Barbarossa  and  Gros  Colman  are  the  two  best  late  black 
grapes,  especially  for  those  who  are  ambitious  to  grow  clusters 


198        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

of  large  size  with  large  berries.  Both  are  very  good  in  quality. 
Neither  of  the  two  is  particularly  easy  to  grow,  since  they 
require  a  long  time  to  ripen;  but,  to  offset  this,  both  keep 
longer  than  any  other  sorts  after  ripening.  Because  of  the 
large  size  of  the  berries,  thinning  must  begin  early  and  must 
be  rather  more  severe  than  with  other  grapes.  This  variety 
is  now  largely  grown  in  England  for  exportation  to  this  country 
in  early  spring. 

White  Nice  and  Syrian  are  two  white  sorts  which  attain 
largest  size  in  clusters,  specimens  weighing  thirty  pounds  be- 
ing not  infrequent,  but  are  coarse  and  poor  in  quality  and 
are,  therefore,  hardly  worth  growing. 

Alicante  is  a  black  sort  often  grown  for  the  sake  of  variety, 
since  it  departs  from  the  Vinifera  type  rather  markedly  in 
flavor.  The  grapes  have  very  thick  skins  and  may  be  kept 
longer  than  those  of  any  other  variety. 

Lady  Downs  is  another  late-keeping  black  grape  of  highest 
quality,  but  difficult  to  grow.  The  bunches  and  berries  are 
small  in  comparison  with  other  standard  sorts,  characters 
that  do  not  commend  the  variety  to  most  gardeners. 

Perhaps  a  dozen  more  sorts  might  be  named  worthy  of  trial 
in  American  graperies,  but  the  list  given  covers  the  needs  of 
commercial  establishments  and  will  meet  the  wants  of  most 
amateur  growers. 

PLANTING  AND  TRAINING 

Two-year-old  vines  are  most  commonly  planted.  The  vines 
are  set  inside  the  house  at  least  a  foot  from  the  walls  and  four 
feet  apart.  The  grapery  must  be  built  on  piers  with  spaces 
of  at  least  two  feet  between,  and  the  vines  are  placed  opposite 
these  openings  in  the  foundation.  When  planted,  the  vines 
are  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  and  when  these  start  the 
strongest  are  selected  for  training,  the  others  being  rubbed  off. 


GRAPES    UNDER   GLASS  199 

The  grapery  must  be  strung  with  wires  running  lengthwise 
of  the  house  at  about  fifteen  inches  from  the  glass.  Green- 
house supply  merchants  furnish  at  a  low  price  cast  iron  brackets 
to  be  fastened  to  the  rafters  to  hold  these  wires.  As  the  growing 
vines  reach  one  wire  after  another,  they  are  tied  with  raffia  to 
hold  them  in  place.  Usually,  .young  vines  will  reach  the  peak 
of  the  house  by  midsummer,  and  as  soon  as  this  goal  is  attained 
must  be  pinched  so  that  the  cane  may  thicken  up  and  store 
food  in  the  lateral  buds  for  the  coming  season.  When  the 
wood  is  well  matured,  the  vine  is  cut  back  to  half  or  one-third 
its  length,  depending  on  the  variety,  laid  on  the  ground  and 
covered  for  the  winter.  An  item  of  no  small  importance  in 
winter  care  is  to  keep  out  mice,  this  pest  being  inordinately 
fond  of  grape  buds,  and  once  the  buds  are  destroyed  the  vines 
are  ruined  for  the  coming  season. 

The  second  year's  work  is  largely  a  repetition  of  that  of  the 
first.  The  vines  are  permitted  to  reach  the  peak  of  the  house 
and  are  again  stopped  by  pinching.  A  considerable  number 
of  laterals  spring  up  on  each  side  of  the  main  vine,  and  these 
must  be  thinned  as  they  develop  to  stand  at  the  distance  apart 
of  the  wires  to  which  they  are  fastened.  This  is  pre-supposing 
that  the  gardener  has  chosen  the  spur  method  of  pruning,  the 
method  generally  used  in  America  and  the  one,  all  things 
considered,  which  gives  best  results.  The  selection  of  the 
laterals  the  second  year,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of  much  impor- 
tance since  spurs  are  to  be  developed  from  them.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  have  these  spurs  regularly  distributed  over  the 
length  of  the  vine.  This  second  year,  grapes  must  not  be  per- 
mitted to  develop  on  the  terminal  shoots,  but  a  few  clusters 
may  be  taken  from  the  laterals  in  which  case  the  laterals  are 
pinched  two  buds  beyond  the  cluster,  the  pinching  continuing 
throughout  the  season  if  the  laterals  persist  in  breaking,  as  they 
will  do  in  most  cases.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  the  terminal 
is  shortened  at  least  one-half,  and  the  laterals  are  pinched  back 


200        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

to  a  bud  as  close  as  possible  to  the  main  stem.  The  vines  are 
then  put  down  for  the  winter  as  at  the  close  of  the  first  season. 

The  work  of  the  third  season  is  a  repetition  of  that  of  the 
second,  with  the  exception  that  the  vine  is  permitted  to  fruit 
throughout  its  whole  length,  although  not  more  than  one 
pound  of  fruit  to  a  foot  of  main  vine  is  permitted.  The  plants 
are  now  established  and  the  only  pruning  in  this  and  succeeding 
years  is  to  cut  the  laterals  at  the  close  of  each  season  close  to 
the  main  stem,  leaving  strong  healthy  buds  of  which  at  least 
one,  usually  more,  will  be  found  close  to  the  stem.  If  more 
than  one  bud  starts,  only  the  strongest  is  chosen,  although 
often  an  extra  one  is  needed  to  fill  a  vacancy  on  the  opposite 
side.  After  the  third  or  fourth  season,  depending  somewhat 
on  the  variety,  two  pounds  of  fruit  or  more  to  the  foot  of  the 
main  stem  can  be  permitted.  The  novice,  however,  is  likely 
to  permit  his  vines  to  overbear  with  the  result  that  the  crop 
is  cast,  or  the  berries  rattle,  or  the  fruit  turns  sour  before  ripen- 
ing. From  the  beginning  to  the  finish  of  the  season,  in  this 
method  of  pruning,  much  pinching  of  laterals  is  required.  No 
hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  this  pinching,  but, 
roughly  speaking,  all  new  growth  beyond  the  second  joint 
from  the  cluster  should  be  pinched  out  as  fast  as  it  shows. 
With  most  varieties,  this  means  that  the  lateral  is  kept  about 
eighteen  inches  from  the  main  stem.  After  a  few  years,  well- 
developed  spurs  form  at  the  base  of  the  original  laterals,  and 
from  these  spurs  the  new  wood  comes  year  after  year. 

An  alternative  method  of  pruning  is  to  permit  the  new  canes 
to  grow  up  from  a  bud  near  the  ground  each  season.  When 
the  vine  is  well  established,  this  new  cane  is  fruited  through- 
out its  entire  length,  the  laterals  being  pinched  as  described 
under  the  spur  method.  This  method  of  pruning  is  known  as 
"the  long  cane  method/'  Gardeners  hold  that  they  can  grow 
better  fruit  with  this  than  with  the  spur  method,  but  the  diffi- 
culties are  greater  and  the  crop  is  not  as  large. 


GRAPES    UNDER   GLASS  201 

CARE  OF  THE  VINES 

With  the  cultivation  of  all  varieties  indoors,  more  clusters 
set  than  the  vines  can  carry.  This  means  that  a  part  of  the 
clusters  must  be  removed,  an  operation  that  depends  on  the 
variety  and  one  that  requires  experience  and  judgment  on  the 
part  of  the  gardener.  Roughly  speaking,  half  the  clusters 
are  taken,  leaving  the  other  half  as  evenly  distributed  on  each 
side  of  the  vine  as  possible.  The  time  to  take  these  clusters 
is  also  a  delicate  matter,  since  some  sorts  are  shy  in  setting  and 
the  clusters  must  not  be  taken  until  the  berries  are  formed 
and  it  can  be  seen  how  large  the  crop  will  be.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, this  thinning  of  clusters  may  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  form 
of  the  cluster  can  be  seen. 

It  is  very  necessary  also,  especially  with  all  sorts  bearing 
large  berries,  that  grapes  be  thinned  in  the  cluster.  The  time 
to  thin  the  cluster  varies  with  the  variety.  Sorts  which  set 
fruit  freely  can  be  thinned  sooner  than  those  which  are  shy  in 
setting.  On  the  one  hand,  the  thinning  must  not  be  done  too 
soon  as  it  cannot  be  told  until  the  berries  are  of  fair  size  which 
have  set  seed  and  which  have  not;  however,  if  thinning  is 
neglected  too  long,  the  berries  become  over-crowded  and  the 
task  becomes  difficult.  The  thinning  is  performed  with  slender 
scissors,  and  the  bunches  must  not  be  touched  with  the  hand, 
as  touching  impairs  the  bloom  and  disfigures  the  fruit.  The 
clusters  are  turned  and  steadied  by  a  small  piece  of  pencil- 
shaped  wood.  Thinning  is  practiced  not  only  to  permit  the 
berries  to  attain  their  full  size  but  also  to  permit  the  bunches 
to  attain  as  great  size  as  possible.  If  too  severely  thinned, 
the  clusters  flatten  out  after  maturity.  This  is  especially 
the  case  when  too  many  berries  are  taken  from  the  center 
of  the  bunch.  A  large  cluster  of  grapes  is  made  up  of  several 
small  clusters,  making  it  necessary  to  tie  up  the  upper  clusters 
or  shoulders  of  the  bunch  to  permit  the  berries  to  swell  without 


202        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

being  thinned  too  severely.  Grapes  intended  for  long  keeping 
require  more  thinning  than  those  to  be  used  at  once  after  pick- 
ing, since,  in  keeping,  the  berries  mold  or  damp-off  in  the 
center  of  the  bunch  if  it  is  too  compact. 

The  vines  in  the  grapery  must  be  watered  with  considerable 
care.  The  amount  of  water  to  be  used  depends  on  the  composi- 
tion of  the  borders  and  the  season  of  growth.  If  the  border 
is  loose  and  well-drained,  the  supply  of  water  must  be  large; 
if  close  and  retentive,  but  a  small  amount  of  moisture  is  re- 
quired. Watering  must  not  be  done  during  the  period  of 
blossoming,  since  dry  air  is  necessary  for  proper  pollination. 
When  the  grapes  begin  to  show  color,  the  vines  are  heavily 
watered,  after  which  little  if  any  water  is  applied.  Some  gar- 
deners mulch  the  vines  with  hay  to  retain  the  moisture  in  the 
house  and  keep  the  atmosphere  dry. 

Ventilating  the  grapery  is  another  important  detail  of  the 
season's  work.  Proper  ventilation  is  difficult  to  secure  in  the 
early  spring  months  when  the  dryness  of  the  sun  on  the  one 
hand,  and  cold  air  on  the  other,  make  it  difficult  to  avoid 
draughts  and  regulate  the  temperature.  Another  troublesome 
time  is  when  the  grapes  begin  to  color,  as  it  is  then  necessary 
for  the  grapery  to  have  air  at  night;  but  when  too  much  air 
enters,  there  is  danger  from  mildew.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
season,  all  parts  of  the  plant  become  harder  in  texture  and  the 
grapery  may  then  be  more  generously  aired.  After  the  fruit 
is  cut,  the  houses  are  ventilated  in  full  so  that  the  wood  may 
ripen  properly. 

PESTS 

Several  pests  vex  the  gardener  in  growing  grapes  indoors. 
Of  these,  mealy-bug,  red-spider,  thrips  and  mildew  are  most 
troublesome.  In  a  well-conducted  grapery,  there  is  never  an 
intermission  in  the  warfare  against  these  pests. 

Mealy-bug  is  usually  a  sign  of  sloth  on  the  part  of  the  gar- 


PLATE  XVI.  —  Elvira  (Xf). 


GRAPES    UNDER   GLASS  203 

dener.  In  a  grapery  devoted  exclusively  to  grape-growing,  it 
should  never  be  seen,  but,  since  gardeners  must  often  grow 
other  plants  in  the  grapery,  mealy-bug  sooner  or  later  appears 
and  is  often  hard  to  dislodge.  It  is  best  repelled  by  removing 
the  loose  bark  on  the  trunks  which  harbor  the  pest  and  then 
washing  with  kerosene  emulsion.  When  this  becomes  neces- 
sary, not  only  the  vines  but  the  rafters  and  all  parts  of  the  house 
should  be  sprayed  with  the  emulsion. 

Red-spider  is  another  pest  usually  found  in  the  grapery,  but 
it  thrives  only  in  a  dry  atmosphere  and  is  easily  gotten  rid  of 
by  syringing.  As  soon  as  red-spider  appears  in  a  house  its 
appearance  is  usually  known  by  the  reddish  tinge  on  the  foliage ; 
syringing  should  be  kept  up  until  the  pest  is  disposed  of,  keep- 
ing the  house  damp  in  all  except  dull  weather.  Syringing  is 
done  only  when  plenty  of  air  can  be  given  and  when  it  can  be 
followed  by  sunlight  so  that  the  water  remains  on  the  vines 
as  short  a  time  as  possible. 

Thrips,  another  small  insect,  is  sometimes  troublesome  but 
not  often  and  is  now  easily  controlled  by  applications  of  nicotine. 
Much  care  must  be  taken  in  the  application  of  nicotine  late 
in  the  season,  otherwise  the  fruit  will  be  injured. 

The  only  fungous  disease  of  the  grape  troublesome  in  the 
greenhouse  is  mildew.  Mildew  is  usually  brought  on  by  a 
sudden  change  of  temperature  or  by  draughts  in  the  grapery. 
Gardeners  are  of  the  opinion  that  east  winds,  in  particular, 
give  unfavorable  conditions  for  mildew  and  prefer  to  open  the 
ventilators  to  the  west.  If  taken  in  time,  mildew  is  easily 
kept  in  check  by  preventing  the  conditions  which  favor  it, 
and  by  dusting  the  vines  in  dry  sunshine  with  sulfur. 


CHAPTER   XII 
GRAPE   PESTS   AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

IN  common  with  other  cultivated  fruits,  grapes  are  at  the 
mercy  of  numerous  insect  and  fungous  pests  unless  man  inter- 
venes with  remedial  or  preventive  treatment.  Happily  for 
viticulture,  knowledge  of  the  pests  of  the  vine  has  made  such 
advancement  in  recent  years  that  practically  all  are  now  con- 
trolled by  remedial  or  preventive  measures.  Possibly  no  field 
of  agriculture  has  had  greater  need,  or  received  greater  aid  from 
science  in  the  study  and  control  of  insects  and  diseases  than 
grape-growing.  A  separate  treatise  would  be  required  to  treat 
the  pathological  troubles  of  the  grape  fully ;  only  such  details 
of  the  life  histories  of  the  several  pests  to  be  discussed  as  are 
essential  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  control  of  the  para- 
sites can  be  given  here. 

INSECT  PESTS 

Insects  troubling  the  grapes  are  numerous,  at  least  200  hav- 
ing been  described  in  America,  most  of  which  have  their  habitat 
on  the  wild  prototypes  of  the  cultivated  vines  of  this  continent. 
For  this  reason,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  insect  pests  of  the 
grape  in  America  are  widely  distributed,  abundant,  and,  there- 
fore, often  very  destructive  to  vineyards  unless  vigorously 
combated.  The,  many  pestiferous  species  vary  greatly  in 
importance,  depending  on  locality,  weather  and  the  variety. 
Phylloxera,  however,  the  country  over,  is  most  common  and 
deserves  first  attention. 

204 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL 


205 


,  Phylloxera. 

This  minute  sucking  insect  (Phylloxera  vastatrix),  injures 
the  grape  by  feeding  on  its  roots.  Decay  usually  follows  its 
work  on  the  roots  and  is  often  more  injurious  than  the  harm 
done  directly  by  the  parasite.  This  decay  is  always  much 
more  serious  on  European  vines  than  on  those  of  our  native 
species.  The  phylloxera  is  a  native  of  the  United  States  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  whence  it  was  introduced  into 
France  and  from  France  into  California,  where  it  causes  much 
greater  damage  than  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  Wherever 
the  pest  is  found,  it  is  more  injurious  in  heavy  than  in  sandy 
soils.  In  fact,  in  very  sandy  soils  the  vines  are  often  sufficiently 
resistant  to  be  prac- 
tically immune. 

The  life  history  of 
the  phylloxera  is  very 
complex  where  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  the  in- 
sect appear  and  need 
not  be  entered  into  in 
detail  here.  East  of  the 
Rockies,  the  most  evi- 
dent indication  of  the 
presence  of  the  pest  is 
great  numbers  of  leaf- 
galls  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  the 
grape  as  shown  in  Fig. 
36.  These  galls,  how- 
ever, are  seldom  to  be  seen  in  California  and  are  not  present 
on  Concords  and  some  other  varieties  in  the  East.  The  winter 
egg  may  be  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the  life  cycle  of  the 
phylloxera.  From  a  single  winter  egg  a  colony  may  arise,  the 


FIG.  36.     Leaf  ^galls  of  the  phylloxera. 


206        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

first  insect  after  hatching  making  its  way  to  the  leaves  where 
it  becomes  a  gall-maker  and  gives  rise  to  a  new  generation  of 
egg-laying  root-feeders.  On  varieties  and  in  regions  where 
the  gall  form  is  not  found,  the  insect  probably  goes  directly 
from  the  winter  egg  to  the  roots.  Once  the  pest  is  established 
on  the  roots,  generation  follows  generation  throughout  the 
growing  period  of  the  vines,  as  many  as  seven  or  eight  occurring 
in  one  season. 

From  midsummer  until  the  close  of  the  growing  season,  some 
of  the  eggs  deposited  by  the  root-feeders  develop  into  nymphs 
which  acquire  wings  and  emerge  from  the  soil  to  form  new 
colonies  from  eggs  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 
An  individual  insect  deposits  from  three  to  six  eggs  of  two  sizes, 
from  the  larger  of  which  corne  the  females  and  these,  after 
fertilization,  move  to  the  rough  bark  of  the  vine  and  deposit 
the  winter  egg  for  the  renewal  of  the  cycle. 

Several  methods  of  control  have  been  employed  in  Europe 
and  California,  as  treatment  by  carbon  bisulfide  injected  in 
the  soil ;  flooding  in  vineyards  that  can  be  irrigated ;  confining 
the  vines  to  sandy  soils;  and,  most  important,  planting  vines 
grafted  on  resistant  stocks,  there  being  great  variation  in  im- 
munity of  species  of  American  grapes  to  phylloxera.  The 
subject  of  stocks  resistant  to  this  pest  has  been  discussed  in 
Chapter  IV  and  need  not  be  taken  up  again.  East  of  the 
Rockies,  treatment  is  not  necessary  with  American  grapes. 

The  grape  root-worm. 

The  grape  root-worm  is  the  most  harmful  of  the  insect 
pests  of  grapes  in  the  grape-belt  along  the  shores  of  Lake 
Erie  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  This  root-worm 
(Fig.  37)  is  the  larva  of  a  grayish-brown  beetle  (Fidia 
mticida),  shown  in  Fig.  38.  The  worms  feed  at  first  on 
the  rootlets  and  later  on  the  bark  of  the  larger  roots 
of  the  vines  so  that  the  injured  plants  show  roots  de- 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL 


207 


FIG.  38.     Root- 
worm  beetle. 


void  of  rootlets  and  bark  channeled  by  the  pest.  So  plain 
is  the  work  of  the  root-worm  that  the  grower  never  need  be 
at  a  loss  as  to  the  cause  of  vines  injured  by 
this  pest.  The  worms  feed  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  growing  season,  reaching  full  growth 

at  this  time.     The  next  June 

they  transform  into  pupae  and  in 

late  June  or  early  July  emerge 

as  adult  beetles.  FIG.  37.  The  grape 

The  presence  of  the  adult  bee- 
tles is  more  easily  detected  on  the  foliage  than  is 
that  of  the  larvae  on  the  roots,  for  the  feeding 
beetles  ravenously  devour  the  upper  sides  of  the 
leaves,  leaving  chain-like  markings,  shown  in 
Fig.  39,  their  destructiveness  decreasing  some- 
what after  a  few  days 
from  their  first  appear- 
ance. A  fortnight  after 
the  beetles  begin  their 
attack  on  the  foliage  the 
female  begins  laying 
her  eggs,  to  the  number 
of  200,  placing  them 
under  the  rough  bark 
of  trunk  and  cane. 
These  hatch  in  late 
July  or  August  and 
the  young  grubs  at 
once  seek  the  roots. 

Two  methods  of  con- 
trol have  been  devised : 
destruction  of  the  bee- 
tles before  they  lav 

\  FIG.  39.     Injuries  caused  by  beetles  of  the 

their    eggs;     and    de-  grape  root-worm. 


208        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

struct  ion  of  the  pupae  while  in  the  ground.  When  the  beetles 
are  present  in  large  numbers,  many  of  them  may  be  destroyed 
by  spraying  with  a  mixture  of  cheap  molasses  and  arsenate  of 
lead,  using  molasses  at  the  rate  of  two  gallons  to  a  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water  and  the  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  six  pounds. 
This  should  be  followed  by  a  second  spraying  a  week  later, 
using  bordeaux  mixture  (4—4—50)  and  three  pounds  of  arsenate 
of  lead.  This  second  spray  serves  to  repel  migrating  beetles 
from  the  vines.  The  molasses  spray  is  ineffective  unless  sev- 
eral days  of  fair  weather  follow  the  spraying,  as  rain  washes 
the  material  from  the  foliage.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  easily 
affected  by  rain.  In  moderately  infested  vineyards,  bordeaux 
mixture  and  arsenate  are  used  instead  of  molasses  and  arsenate 
of  lead,  followed  in  about  ten  days  with  a  second  application 
of  the  same  material. 

An  effective  method  of  reducing  the  number  of  beetles  is 
the  destruction  of  the  pupae.  This  is  best  done  by  leaving  a 
low  ridge  of  earth  under  the  vines  at  the  last  seasonal  culti- 
vation to  remain  until  most  of  the  larvae  have  pupated,  and 
then  be  leveled  with  a  horse-hoe  and  later  with  a  harrow. 
The  horse-hoe  and  harrow  crush  many  of  the  pupae  and  break 
the  cells  of  others  to  the  great  destruction  of  the  pest.  This 
latter  method  of  control  is  not  adequate  in  itself  and  in  bad 
infestations  both  should  be  used.  When  the  infestation  is 
only  moderate,  this  latter  method  is  not  advised,  owing  to  the 
lateness  of  the  time  of  horse-hoeing.  It  is  good  horticultural 
practice  to  horse-hoe  the  latter  part  of  May  or  early  June. 
To  wait  for  the  pupal  stage  of  the  root-worm  delays  the  work 
until  numerous  small  roots  start  which  would  be  destroyed  by 
the  horse-hoe.  Spraying  will  control  a  moderate  infestation. 

The  grape-vine  flea-beetle. 

In  the  warm  days  of  May  and  June  when  the  buds  of  grapes 
are  swelling,  a  shining  steel-blue  beetle  may  often  be  found  in 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR    CONTROL 


209 


the  vineyards  of  eastern  America  feeding  on  the  tender  buds 
of  the  grape.  From  its  color  the  insect  is  often  called  the 
steely-beetle,  and  from  its  activity  and  habit  of  jumping 
it  is  known  as  the  flea-beetle  (Haltica  chalybea).  The 
vine  is  seldom  seriously  injured  by  this  pest  but  many  buds 
are  destroyed,  causing  the  loss  of  the  fruit  that  should  have 
developed  from  the  buds.  It  is  true  that  new  buds  often 
develop  after  the  injury,  but  these,  as  a  rule, 
produce  only  foliage. 

The  life  history  of  the  flea-beetle  is  such 
that  the  pest  is  not  hard  to  control,  the  chief 
steps  in  its  development  being  as  follows : 
The  beetles  deposit  small  orange-colored  eggs, 
cylindrical  in  form,  illustrated  in  Fig.  40, 
about  the  buds  and  in  crevices  of  the  bark 
of  the  canes  in  May  or  June.  Most  of  these 
eggs  are  hatched  by  the  middle  of  June. 
The  larvse  feed  upon  the  foliage  until  about 
July  first  and  then  crawl  to  the  ground  in 
which  they  form  cells  and  pupate.  The  latter 
part  of  July  the  adults  emerge  and  seek  wild 
vines  upon  which  they  feed,  entering  hiber-  °f  grape-vine 
nation  rather  early  in  the  fall.  The  beetles 
hibernate  under  leaves,  in  rubbish  and  in  the  shelter  of  the 
bark  of  trees  and  vines,  but  emerge  in  the  warm  days  the 
following  spring  to  seek  vineyards. 

Two  methods  of  control  have  been  developed  to  keep  this 
pest  under.  The  vines  should  be  sprayed  with  three  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  in  fifty  gallons  of  water  when  the  larvae 
are  feeding  on  the  foliage;  or  the  beetles  when  feeding  may 
be  knocked  into  a  pan  containing  a  shallow  layer  of  kerosene. 
The  former  is  the  cheaper  and  more  effective  method  provided 
the  grape-grower  has  the  foresight  to  discover  the  larvse,  since 
the  larvse  of  this  summer  produce  the  beetles  that  will  destroy 


210        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

the  buds  next  spring.  When  the  adults  migrate  from  wild 
vines,  or  the  larvae  were  not  destroyed  in  the  vineyard,  collect- 
ing the  adults  is  the  only  practical  method.  The  destruction 
of  wild  vines  near  a  vineyard  helps  to  give  immunity  from  this 
pest. 

The  rose-chafer. 

The  rose-chafer  (Macrodactylus  subspinosus) ,  a  long-legged 
beetle  of  a  yellowish-brown  color,  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  often  appears  in  vineyards  in  vast  swarms  toward  the 
middle  of  June  in  northern  states  and  about  two  weeks  earlier 
in  southern  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Often  they 
overrun  gardens,  orchards,  vineyards  and  nurseries,  and  usually, 
after  having  done  a  vast  amount  of  damage  in  the  month  of 
their  devastating  presence,  the  beetles  disappear  as  suddenly 
as  they  came.  Vineyards  on  or  near  sandy  soils  are  most 
often  infested,  the  larvse  of  the  beetle  seeming  to  live  in  consid- 
erable numbers  only  in  these  light  soils.  The  chief  damage 
to  the  grape  is  done  to  the  blossom ;  in  fact  the  insects,  after 
feeding  on  the  blossoms  during  the  blossoming  period,  usually 
migrate  to  blossoms  of  any  one  of  several  shrubs.  The  larvse 
feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses,  having  particular  liking  for  the 
roots  of  foxtail,  timothy  and  blue-grass. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  these  beetles  is  essen- 
tial to  effective  control.  The  beetles  emerge  as  adults  in  June 
and  after  feeding  a  short  time  begin  to  mate,  although  egg- 
laying  does  not  take  place  until  the  insects  have  been  out  for 
a  fortnight  or  more.  The  females  burrow  into  the  soil  and 
deposit  their  eggs,  seldom  more  than  twenty-five  in  number, 
which  begin  to  hatch  in  about  ten  days.  The  young  larvse 
feed  during  the  remainder  of  the  summer  on  roots  of  grasses. 
They  are  seldom  found  deeper  than  six  inches  while  feeding, 
but  as  cold  weather  approaches  they  burrow  deeper  to  avoid 
sudden  changes  of  temperature.  The  following  spring  they 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL  211 

again  come  near  the  surface  to  feed.  The  grubs  form  cells 
from  which  the  pupae  emerge,  as  we  have  seen,  about  the  middle 
of  June,  timing  their  appearance  very  closely  to  the  blossoming 
of  Concord  grapes. 

The  methods  of  control  are  three,  namely :  destruction  of 
the  larvse ;  cultivation  to  kill  the  pupae ;  and  spraying  to  kill 
the  beetles.  Since  the  larvse  feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses  in 
sandy  soils,  it  is  easy  to  locate  the  feeding  ground  of  the  pest 
and  plant  it  to  cultivated  crops  which  destroy  the  grasses  and 
therefore  the  larvse.  The  second  method  of  destruction  is 
similar,  consisting  of  cultivation  to  kill  the  pupae.  This  is 
accomplished  by  thorough  cultivation  during  the  pupating 
stage  to  break  the  cells  and  crush  the  pupse,  thus  preventing 
the  emergence  of  the  beetles.  The  third  method,  however, 
is  the  most  effective  and  consists  of  spraying  the  vineyard 
with  a  sweetened  arsenical  spray.  The  spraying  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  the  beetles  appear,  using  arsenate  of  lead  six 
pounds,  molasses  one  gallon  and  water  one  hundred  gallons. 
It  is  often  necessary  to  make  a  second  application  a  week  later. 
If  rain  occurs  within  thirty-six  hours  after  spraying,  the  appli- 
cation should  be  repeated  as  soon  as  the  weather  clears. 

The  grape  leaf -hopper. 

From  Canada  to  the  Gulf  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  wherever  the  grape  is  grown,  the  small  leaf-hopper 
(Typhlocyba  comes)  infests  the  grape  in  greater  or  less  numbers, 
feeding  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf.  Grape-growers  com- 
monly call  these  insects  "thrips,"  a  name,  however,  which 
really  belongs  to  a  very  different  class  of  insects.  The  injury 
done  by  this  pest  varies  greatly  with  the  season  and  the  locality, 
in  some  regions  it  being  comparatively  harmless  and  in  others 
exceedingly  destructive  in  seasons  when  it  occurs  in  abundance. 
There  is  great  variation  also  in  individual  vineyards,  those 
near  favorable  hibernating  places  and  early  spring  food  plants 


212        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


often  being  injured  seriously  season  after  season  in  succession. 

These  leaf-hoppers  obtain  their  food  by  piercing  the  epidermis 

on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
surface  and  sucking  the 
sap,  and  add  further  injury 
by  inserting  their  eggs  un- 
derneath the  skin  of  the 
leaf.  The  punctures  greatly 
decrease  the  starch-produc- 
ing area  of  the  leaf  with 
the  result  that  the  vigor  of 
the  plant  is  lowered,  and 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  de- 
creased. 

The  life  history  of  the 
leaf-hopper  is  very  well 
known.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  June  or  early 

July,  and  hatch  from  June  15  to  July  10  in  New  York,  the 

season  being  earlier  or  later  as  one  goes  south  or  north.     The 

young  leaf -hoppers  are  wing- 
less, the  nymph  stage,  but 

reach  the  adult  stage  in  late 

July  and  August,  at  which 

time  many  of  them  mate,  and 

eggs  are  laid  from  which  a 

second  brood  may  develop, 

although   usually  only  one 

full  brood  is  produced  in  a 

season  in  the  northern  states. 

Figures  41  and  42  show  the 

several   life    stages   of    the 

leaf-hopper.     Insects  which 

,    ,       .  FIG.  42.     The  fifth  and  the  mature  stages 

become    adults  111  the  latter        Of  the  grape  leaf-hopper.     (Enlarged.) 


FIG.  41.     First  four  stages  of  the  grape 
leaf -hopper.     (Enlarged.) 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL  213 

part  of  July  feed  on  the  foliage  until  autumn  and  then  seek  win- 
ter quarters,  passing  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage  under  fallen 
leaves,  in  dead  grass  or  other  similar  protection.  The  hibernat- 
ing place  must  be  dry  and  for  this  reason  sandy  knolls  are  most 
favored  by  the  insects.  The  adults  emerge  in  the  warm  days  of 
spring  and  then  seek  food  first  on  the  strawberry,  then  migrate 
to  red  and  black  raspberries  or  blackberries,  if  raspberries  are  not 
present.  They  remain  upon  these  hosts  until  the  grape  leaves 
expand  and  then  migrate  to  these  to  feed,  lay  their  eggs  and  die. 
Three  methods  of  control  are  in  use  to  prevent  the  ravages 
of  the  leaf-hopper:  avoiding  the  planting  of  raspberries  near 
grapes;  spraying  with  contact  insecticides;  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  hibernating  places.  Since  the  leaf-hoppers  feed  espe- 
cially on  the  raspberry  before  the  leaves  of  the  grape  have 
expanded  in  the  spring,  avoiding  planting  these  two  plants 
near  each  other  is  a  very  effective  method  of  control.  The 
contact  spray  must  touch  the  body  of  the  insect  and  must,, 
therefore,  be  applied  before  the  nymphs  develop  wings.  The 
best  spray  is  a  half  pint  of  Black  Leaf  40  to  a  hundred  gallons 
of  water  or  bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  applied  to  the  under  side 
of  the  foliage  by  a  trailing  hose  or  by  an  automatic  grape  leaf- 
hopper  spray  devised  by  F.  Z.  Hartzell  and  described  in  bulletin 
344  of  the  New  York  Experiment  Station.  The  destruction 
of  hibernating  places  is  almost  as  effective  a  method  of  control 
as  spraying.  All  weeds  and  strong-stalked  grasses  which  die 
in  the  fall  and  all  rubbish  in  the  vineyard  should  te  destroyed. 
It  is  quite  worth  while,  also,  to  burn  leaves  and  rubbish  in 
fence  rows  and  waste  places  near  infested  vineyards  in  the 
autumn  or  early  winter.  Cover-crops  which  remain  green 
during  the  winter  do  not  harbor  the  leaf-hoppers. 

The  grape-berry  moth. 

This  pest  is  widely  distributed,  attacking  the  grape  wherever 
grown  in  North  America.     The  insect  feeds  on  all  varieties 


214 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


but  is  especially  destructive  to  grapes  with  tender  skins  and 
such  as  grow  in  compact  bunches.  Its  work  is  detected  usually 
in  compact  grape  clusters  where  a  number  of  berries  are  injured 
by  a  "worm."  The  "worm"  is  a  dark-colored  caterpillar,  the 
larva  of  the  grape-berry  moth  (Polychrosis  viteana.)  There 

are  two  broods  of  this  cater- 
pillar, the  first  of  which  feeds  on 
the  stems  and  external  portions 
of  the  young  berries,  while  the 
second  attacks  the  berries.  The 
loss  to  the  fruit-grower  is  of  two 
kinds,  the  loss  of  the  fruit  and  the 
marring  of  clusters  which  entails 
the  cost  of  picking  out  worthless 
berries.  Figure  43  shows  the  work 
of  the  grape-berry  moth.  The 
damage  is  usually  greatest  near 
woodlands  since  the  trees  cause 
more  snow  to  lodge  in  the  adjoin- 
ing vineyards,  this  protection  per- 
mitting a  greater  percentage  of 
pupae  to  survive. 

The  moth  passes  the  winter  in 
the  pupal  state  on  leaves  under- 
neath the  vine,  emerging  about 
the  time  grapes  are  blossoming. 
The  sexes  then  mate  and  the  eggs 
are  laid  on  the  stems,  blossom  clusters  and  newly  set  fruit. 
After  reaching  full  growth,  the  caterpillars  cut  out  a  portion 
of  the  leaf  from  which  they  make  a  pupal  case  by  means  of 
silken  threads,  and  here  pupate  for  the  second  brood  which 
emerges  in  late  July  and  August.  Eggs  are  laid  at  once  and 
from  these  come  the  caterpillars  which  live  entirely  in  the 
berry.  The  larvae  leave  the  berries  about  the  time  the  fruit  is 


FIG.  43.     A  "bunch  of  grapes 
despoiled  by  the  grape-berry  moth. 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL  215 

ripe,  form  cocoons  on  the  leaves  and  hibernate.  The  moths 
are  small,  brown  in  color,  mottled  with  gray  and  so  much  the 
color  of  the  grape  cane  that  they  can  hardly  be  detected  when 
resting  on  the  wood. 

The  grape-berry  moth  is  difficult  to  control  but  much  can  be 
done  to  curtail  its  ravages.  Spraying  after  the  fruit  sets  is  the 
most  effective  preventive.  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  used 
(4-4—50)  to  which  has  been  added  one  and  one-half  pounds 
of  resin-fish-oil  soap  and  three  pounds  arsenate  of  lead.  A 
second  application  of  the  same  spray  is  advisable  in  early 
August.  In  a  small  vineyard  or  with  a  slight  infestation,  it 
often  pays  to  pick  and  destroy  the  berries  infested  by  the 
spring  brood.  Plowing  infested  vineyards  in  late  fall  or  early 
spring  to  bury  all  leaves  prevents  the  emergence  of  many  of 
the  moths.  To  be  effective,  this  practice  must  cover  the 
leaves  deeply  directly  under  the  vines  and  this  earth  must 
remain  until  after  the  time  for  the  adults  to  emerge.  Plow- 
ing under  leaves  is  not  as  effective  on  sandy  as  on  heavy  soils, 
since  sandy  soils  do  not  become  sufficiently  compact  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  moths. 

Insect  pests  of  minor  importance. 

Of  the  200  species  of  insects  that  feed  more  or  less  on  the 
grape,  entomologists  mention  several  others  than  those  described 
that  in  occasional  years  or  localities  become  abundant  and 
cause  serious  injury.  Thus,  there  are  several  species  of  cut- 
worms which  sometimes  feed  on  the  expanding  buds  of  the 
young  leaves  of  grapes.  The  damage  of  these  cut-worms 
to  the  grape  is  greater  in  California  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States,  but  nevertheless  they  occasionally  feed  on  the 
vines  in  eastern  regions  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop.  The 
most  satisfactory  control  measure  for  cut-worms  is  the  appli- 
cation of  poisoned  bait  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the 
vines. 


216        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

In  California  there  is  a  grape  root- worm  (Adoxus  obscurus) 
quite  distinct  from  the  grape  root-worm  of  eastern  America 
which  injures  both  the  roots  and  the  parts  of  the  vine  above 
ground.  As  in  the  eastern  species,  the  best  evidence  of  infesta- 
tion of  this  pest  is  the  narrow  chain-like  strips  eaten  out  of  the 
leaves,  though  the  insect  also  gouges  out  part  of  the  petioles, 
pedicels,  berries  and  shoots  and  works  under  ground,  eating 
the  rootlets  and  bark  of  the  larger  roots.  Infested  vines 
show  a  stunted  condition,  the  canes  fail  to  attain  a  normal 
growth  and  often  the  vines  are  killed  outright.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  eastern  species,  this  root-worm  is  the  larva  of  a 
beetle,  the  life  history  of  the  insect  not  being  greatly  different 
from  that  of  the  eastern  beetle.  Two  methods  of  control  are 
fairly  effective :  the  adult  beetles  may  be  jarred  from  the 
vine  and  captured  on  a  screen  when  the  infestation  is  restricted 
to  small  areas ;  or  the  beetles  may  be  poisoned  with  the  arseni- 
cal spray  recommended  for  the  eastern  species.  Both  jarring  and 
spraying  often  have  to  be  repeated  as  new  infestations  appear. 

The  grape  leaf-folder  (Desmia  funeralis)  is  another  insect 
pest  of  vineyards  in  California,  and  occasionally  in  the  East, 
which  works,  however,  only  in  restricted  localities  and  in  occa- 
sional years.  In  California,  the  insects  are  detected  in  a  vine- 
yard by  the  characteristic  rolling  of  the  leaves  in  which  a  tube 
rather  less  than  the  diameter  of  a  lead  pencil  is  formed  for 
the  home  of  the  larvae.  The  larvae  feed  on  the  free  edge  of  the 
leaf  in  the  interior  of  the  roll  and  are  thus  protected  by  the 
outer  layers.  In  the  East  the  caterpillar  merely  folds  the 
edges  of  the  leaves  together.  This  leaf -folder  hibernates  as 
a  chrysalis,  coming  forth  in  early  spring  to  lay  eggs  on  the 
vine  shortly  after  the  foliage  has  appeared.  There  are  two 
broods  in  California  and  the  northern  states  and  three  broods 
in  the  southern  states.  The  leaf-folder  is  easily  disposed  of 
by  spraying  with  an  arsenical  spray  just  after  the  eggs  hatch 
and  before  the  larva  is  protected  by  its  roll  of  leaves. 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR    CONTROL  217 

Still  another  pest  found  throughout  the  United  States  and 
especially  destructive  in  California  is  the  hawk-moth  (Pholus 
achemon),  the  larvae  of  which  occasionally  do  serious  damage 
to  small  areas  of  vines.  These  larvae  are  very  similar  to  the 
large  worms,  familiar  to  all,  which  attack  the  tomato  and 
tobacco.  The  insect  hibernates  in  the  pupal  state  in  the 
ground  where  it  may  be  distinguished  as  a  large  cylindrical 
object  of  dark  brown  color.  The  moths  emerge  about  the 
middle  of  May  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  grape, 
upon  which  the  larvae  when  hatched  immediately  begin  to 
feed.  There  are  several  species  of  these  hawk-moths,  all  of 
which  have  essentially  the  same  life  history.  It  is  not  a  diffi- 
cult pest  to  control  since  the  larvae  are  easily  killed  with  arseni- 
cal sprays ;  or  if  there  are  but  occasional  specimens  they  may 
be  picked  by  hand.  There  are  several  species  of  the  hawk- 
moth  which  attack  the  grape  but  this  is  the  common  one. 

In  eastern  grape-growing  regions,  there  are  two  other  destruc- 
tive grape  insects  widely  distributed,  but  each  noteworthy  as 
pests  only  in  the  Appalachian  region  of  West  Virginia  and 
neighboring  states.  One  is  the  grape-curculio  (Craponius 
incequalis),  not  essentially  different  from  the  familiar  curculio 
of  the  plum  and  cherry.  This  snout-beetle  feeds  freely  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaves  and  the  bark  of  fruit  stems,  and  the 
female  in  laying  eggs  devours  the  tissues  of  the  grapes  in  ex- 
cavating her  egg  chamber.  The  grape-curculio  is  effectively 
destroyed  by  spraying  with  an  arsenical  spray  in  the  spring 
as  the  beetles  appear  on  the  vines  and  before  egg-laying  begins. 

Another  insect  pest  of  this  region  is  the  grape-vine  root-borer 
(Memythrus  polistiformis)  closely  allied  ''to  the  peach-borer, 
known  by  all  fruit-growers  and  the  squash-vine  borer  known 
to  the  growers  of  vegetables.  This  borer  is  the  larva  of  a 
moth  and  is  a  whitish  grub  with  a  brown  head  which,  when 
fully  grown,  is  about  one  and  three-quarters  inches  in  length. 
The  body  is  slender,  distinctly  segmented  and  has  a  sparse 


218        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

covering  of  short,  stiff  hairs.  These  larvae  burrow  into  the 
grape-root,  at  first  confining  themselves  to  the  softer  portions 
of  the  bark,  often  encircling  the  root  several  times,  but  later 
bore  with  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  by  the  end  of  the  season  so 
destroy  the  roots  as  to  leave  only  the  thin  membrane  of  the 
outer  bark  intact.  This  pest  is  difficult  to  deal  with.  The 
borers  cannot  be  removed  by  "worming"  as  in  the  peach, 
and  neither  can  the  roots  be  protected  by  sprays  or  washes. 
No  one  variety  of  the  grape  seems  more  immune  than  another. 
Thorough  cultivation  in  the  months  of  June  and  July  to  destroy 
the  insects  while  in  their  cocoons  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
seems  to  be  the  only  method  of  stopping  their  ravages,  and  this 
is  not  always  effective. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES  OF  THE  GRAPE 

The  grape  is  ravaged  by  four  or  five  fungous  diseases  in 
America,  unless  the  utmost  vigilance  is  exercised  to  keep  the 
parasites  in  check.  Happily  for  commercial  viticulture,  there 
are  regions,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  description  of  grape  regions 
in  Chapter  I,  so  fortunate  in  their  freedom  from  fungous  diseases 
that  there  is  little  uncertainty  in  grape-growing  and  but  small 
expense  in  controlling  diseases.  Also  modern  science  has 
discovered  the  life  history  of  all  the  important  diseases  and 
devised  fairly  effective  means  of  combating  them. 

All  of  the  fungous  parasites  of  the  grape  in  America  are  in- 
digenous, having  long  subsisted  on  wild  vines.  They  are,  there- 
fore, all  widely  distributed,  and  as  cultivation  has  presented 
to  them  great  numbers  of  grape  plants  in  continuous  areas, 
the  diseases  have  increased  rapidly  in  intensity,  at  times  have 
swept  like  wildfire  through  grape  regions  devastating  and 
utterly  ruining  great  areas  of  vines.  Means,  however,  are  now 
at  hand  in  remedial  and  preventive  treatment,  which,  while 
because  of  cost  may  not  permit  the  grapes  to  be  grown  profit- 


PLATE  XVII.  —  Empire  State  (Xf). 


GRAPE  PESTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


219 


ably  in  all  parts  of  America,  do  permit  their  culture  for  home 
use  in  practically  all  agricultural  districts  in  ^the  country. 

Black-rot. 

This  is  the  most  widely  distributed  and  the  most  destructive 
fungous  disease  of  the  grape  in  the  region  east  of  the  Rocky 


.    FIG.  44.  Work  of  black-rot  of  the  grape. 

Mountains.  Fortunately,  it  is  unknown  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasitic  fungus  (Guignardia  Bid- 
wellii)  which  gains  entrance  to  the  grape  plant  by  means  of 
minute  spores  distributed  chiefly  by  wind  and  rain.  Black- 
rot  passes  the  winter  in  mummied  grapes,  on  dead  tendrils 
or  on  small,  dead  areas  on  the  canes.  In  the  spring,  the  fungus 
spreads  from  these  spots  to  the  leaves  and  forms  brown  leaf 
spots  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or  oblong,  black 
spots  on  the  shoots,  leaves,  petioles  and  tendrils.  Later  the 
disease  spreads  to  the  fruits,  not  usually  attracting  attention 


220        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

until  the  berries  are  at  least  half  grown.  Soon  after  the  ravages 
of  the  fungus  become  apparent  on  the  berries,  the  fruits  turn 
black,  shrivel  and  become  covered  with  minute  black  pustules 
which  contain  the  summer-spores.  Figure  44  shows  the 
work  of  black-rot.  In  the  winter  and  spring,  another  form 
called  the  winter-  or  resting-spore  is  produced  upon  these  old, 
shriveled,  mummied  berries,  and  these  carry  the  disease  over 
from  one  season  to  another. 

Since  the  disease  is  carried  through  the  winter  in  mummied 
fruits  and  diseased  wood,  the  desirability  of  destroying  these 
mummied  grapes  and  the  leaves  and  prunings  of  infected  vines 
as  soon  as  possible  is  apparent.  This  treatment,  however, 
is  not  sufficient,  and  the  disease  can  be  effectually  controlled 
only  by  thorough  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  (4—4—50). 
The  first  application  should  be  made  just  before  the  grape 
blossoms ;  the  second,  shortly  after  blossoming.  The  amount 
of  material  applied  matters  less  than  evenness  in  distribution 
and  fineness  of  the  spray  as  applied.  In  rainy  seasons,  perhaps 
a  third  or  a  fourth  application  should  be  made  in  regions  where 
the  disease  is  serious ;  the  third  is  made  when  the  berries  are 
the  size  of  a  pea ;  the  fourth,  as  the  berries  become  large  enough 
to  touch  each  other. 

Downy-mildew . 

Downy-mildew  (P'asmopara  viticola)  rivals  black-rot  for 
first  place  among  fungous  diseases  of  the  grape.  It  is  found 
in  all  grape  regions  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  but  does  most 
harm  in  northern  localities.  Like  black-rot,  downy-mildew 
attacks  all  the  tender  growing  parts  of  the  vine,  but  is  chiefly 
found  on  the  foliage  and  is  usually  less  destructive  than  black- 
rot.  As  first  seen  on  the  foliage,  the  work  of  the  fungus  appears 
as  greenish-yellow,  irregular  spots  upon  the  upper  surface  which 
later  become  reddish-brown.  At  the  same  time  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaf,  a  thin,  white  downy  growth  puts  forth. 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL 


221 


The  spores  of  the  fungus  are  produced  on  this  downy  growth, 
and  under  favorable  conditions  are  distributed  by  wind  and 
water  to  all  tender  parts  of  the  vine,  where  they  germinate 
and  begin  their  work  of  destruction.  The  fruit  is  attacked 
when  partly  grown,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  becoming  covered 


Fia.  45.    Grapes  attacked  by  downy-mildew. 

with  the  gray  down  of  the  fungus,  the  "  gray-rot "  of  the 
grape-grower. "  If  the  berries  escape  the  disease  until  half 
grown,  the  fungus  causes  a  brownish-purple  spot  that  soon 
covers  the  whole  grape,  giving  the  disease  at  this  stage  the 
name  of  "brown-rot."  Besides  the  summer-spores,  another 
form  of  reproductive  bodies  is  produced  in  the  winter  to 
carry  the  fungus  through  the  resting  period. 

Downy-mildew,   like   black-rot,   spreads  most  rapidly   and 


222        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

does  most  injury  in  hot,  wet  weather.  As  with  practically  all 
diseases  of  the  grape,  much  can  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
control  of  the  disease  by  destroying  infested  leaves,  shoots 
and  berries  which  contain  the  winter  spores,  but  these  sanitary 
measures  are  not  sufficiently  effective  and  vineyards  must  be 
sprayed  as  recommended  for  black-rot,  except  that  the  first 
application  should  be  made  before  the  blossom-buds  appear. 

Powdery-mildew. 

Less  troublesome  than  downy-mildew  in  the  East,  powdery- 
mildew  (Uncinula  necator),  unless  checked,  is  capable  of  destroy- 
ing the  entire  crop  of  European  grapes  on  the  Pacific  slope. 
In  the  East  it  sometimes  causes  great  loss  on  the  several  varieties 
known  as  "Rogers  hybrids"  and,  curiously  enough,  is  often 
a  rather  serious  disease  of  the  Concord.  The  disease  is  caused 
by  a  superficial  fungus  which  passes  the  winter  on  fallen  leaves 
and  also  on  the  canes.  The  spores  begin  to  germinate  a  few 
weeks  after  the  grape  blossoms,  but  the  disease  is  not  often 
found  until  the  grapes  are  nearly  half  grown.  The  fine  white 
filaments  of  the  fungus,  which  constitute  the  vegetative  por- 
tion of  the  parasite,  then  attack  the  leaves,  shoots  and  fruit, 
sending  up  short  irregular  branches  on  which  great  numbers 
of  spores  are  borne.  These  give  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf 
a  gray,  powdery  appearance,  hence  the  name.  Eventually 
the  diseased  leaves  become  light  brown  and  if  the  disease  is 
severe,  soon  fall.  Infected  berries  take  on  a  gray,  scurfy 
appearance,  speckled  with  brown,  are  checked  in  growth  and 
often  burst  on  one  side,  exposing  the  seeds.  The  berries,  how- 
ever, do  not  become  soft  and  shrunken  as  when  attacked  by 
the  downy-mildew.  The  disease  passes  the  winter  in  resting- 
spores  produced  late  in  the  growing  season.  Powdery-mildew 
differs  from  other  fungous  diseases  of  the  grape  in  being  more 
prevalent  in  hot,  dry  seasons  than  in  cold,  wet  ones. 

In  eastern  America  powdery-mildew  is  controlled  by  the 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR    CONTROL  223 

treatment  recommended  for  black-rot.  When  black-rot  is 
not  prevalent,  two  sprays  with  bordeaux  mixture  are  recom- 
mended ;  the  first  in  early  July  and  the  second  about  two  weeks 
later.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  powdery-mildew  or 
"oidium"  as  it  is  often  called  there,  the  name  coming  from 
Europe,  is  more  cheaply  and  more  successfully  combated  by 
dusting  with  flowers  of  sulfur.  Dusting  is  often  done  by  hand 
or  with  perforated  cans  but  this  is  wasteful  and  uncertain,  and 
any  one  of  several  sulfur-sprayers  may  be  used  which  does  the 
work  better. 

Anthracnose. 

Another  widespread  disease  is  anthracnose  (Sphaceloma  ampe- 
linum),  called  "  bird s-eye-rot"*  because  of  the  peculiar  spots 
produced  on  the  affected  fruits,  which  attacks  leaves,  shoots 
and  fruits  of  the  vine.  It  first  appears  on  the  leaves  in  small, 
irregular,  dark  brown  sunken  spots  with  a  dark  margin.  Later 
it  appears  on  the  fruits,  having  much  the  same  appearance 
though  the  spots  are  usually  larger  and  more  sunken,  the  disease 
being  most  characteristic  on  the  fruit,  however.  Frequently 
two  or  more  spots  unite  and  so  cover  the  greater  part  of  the 
berry.  The  fruits  become  hard,  more  or  less  wrinkled,  and  the 
diseased  area  often  ruptures,  exposing  the  seed,  much  as  with 
powdery-mildew.  The  spores  of  the  fungus  are  produced 
in  great  numbers  on  diseased  areas  during  the  growing  season 
and  are  borne  on  thread-like  filaments  which  live  through- 
out the  winter  in  the  tissues  of  the  vine  and  are  ready  for 
new  growth  in  the  spring.  Winter-spores  have  not  yet  been 
discovered. 

Anthracnose  is  widely  distributed  in  eastern  America  but 
seldom  causes  great  or  general  loss,  most  of  the  commercial 
grapes  being  relatively  immune  to  the  disease.  A  few  sorts 
rather  commonly  grown  in  home  vineyards,  as  Diamond, 
Brighton  and  Agawam,  suffer  most  from  anthracnose.  Spray- 


224         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ing  with  bordeaux  mixture,   as  recommended  for  black-rot, 
is  usually  sufficient  to  keep  the  disease  in  check. 

Dead-arm  disease. 

A  troublesome  disease  of  recent  appearance  is  now  doing 
considerable  damage  in  the  Chautauqua  grape-belt  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Erie,  being  most  common  on  the  Concord.  From 
the  fact  that  it  is  usually  found  on  one  arm  of  the  vine  it  is 
called  "dead-arm  disease77  (Cryptosporella  viticola.)  The  dis- 
ease is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  passes  the  winter  in  small, 
black  fruiting  bodies  in  the  dead  parts  of  the  vine.  Early 
in  the  spring  the  fungus  spreads  by  means  of  spores  to  the  young 
shoots  and  later  in  the  season  attacks  mature  berries,  producing 
small,  black,  oblong  spots  of  black-rot.  Sooner  or  later,  if 
the  diseased  shoot  is  not  cut  off,  the  fungus  spreads  to  the  arms 
or  trunk  of  the  vine,  producing  a  slow,  dry  rot  which  eventually 
kills  the  affected  part.  Fortunately,  the  presence  of  the  disease 
is  quickly  detected  by  small  yellowish  leaves,  much  crimped 
about  the  margin. 

The  fungus  is  easily  controlled  by  marking  the  diseased  arms 
when  the  first  symptoms  appear  and  cutting  these  off  at  prun- 
ing time.  If  the  vine  is  much  mutilated  by  such  pruning, 
usually  suckers  can  be  brought  up  from  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground  to  renew  the  vine.  The  applications  of  bordeaux 
mixture  recommended  for  black-rot  are  valuable  in  preventing 
the  dead-arm  disease.  The  disease  is  largely  prevented  by 
renewing  the  old  wood  of  the  vine  as  soon  as  the  trunk  begins 
to  show  a  gnarled  appearance. 

Shelling. 

In  eastern  America,  especially  in  the  Chautauqua  grape- 
belt,  grape-growers  not  infrequently  lose  a  large  part  of  the 
crop  by  the  premature  falling  of  the  grapes  from  the  stems. 
The  trouble  is  an  ancient  one  and  is  designated  as  "  shelling " 


GRAPE    PESTS    AND    THEIR    CONTROL  225 

or  "rattling."  This  premature  dropping  usually  begins  at 
the  end  of  a  cluster,  and  clusters  farthest  from  the  trunk  are 
earliest  affected.  When  vineyards  suffer  badly  from  this 
shelling,  the  vines  often  take  on  a  sickly  appearance,  the  foliage 
falling  off  in  color  and  the  outer  margins  of  the  leaves  drying 
up  more  or  less.  The  fallen  fruit  has  an  insipid  taste  and  is, 
of  course,  worthless  even  if  it  could  be  harvested. 

The  cause  of  the  trouble  is  not  known.  Grapes  may  "  rattle  " 
on  high  land  or  low  land,  on  poor  soil  or  rich  soil,  on  heavy  or 
light  soil.  A  vineyard  may  be  affected  one  year  and  not  the 
next.  Grape-growers  usually  attribute  the  trouble  to  faulty 
nutrition,  but  applications  of  fertilizers  have  not  proved  a 
preventive.  Old  and  well-established  vineyards  seem  freer 
from  the  trouble  than  new  and  poorly  established  plantings. 
The  most  reasonable  theory  as  to  the  cause  of  shelling  is  that 
it  comes  from  faulty  nutrition  of  the  vine,  but  the  conditions 
so  affecting  the  nutrition  are  not  yet  satisfactorily  determined. 

Diseases  of  minor  importance. 

Ripe-rot  or  bitter-rot  (Glomerella  rufomaculans)  is  a  disease 
due  to  the  same  fungus  causing  the  bitter-rot  of  the  apple. 
As  the  name  indicates,  the  disease  usually  appears  on  the  fruit 
at  ripening  time  and  under  favorable  conditions  continues 
after  the  grapes  are  picked.  It  may  also  attack  the  leaves  and 
stems.  The  first  indication  of  the  fungus  is  the  appearance  of 
reddish-brown  spots  which  spread  and  eventually  cover  the 
whole  fruit.  The  berries  do  not  shrivel,  but  the  rotted  surface 
becomes  dotted  with  pustules  in  which  the  spores  are  borne. 
It  is  hard  to  tell  how  much  damage  this  disease  does,  but  it 
is  not  usually  great  and  the  late  applications  of  bordeaux  mix- 
ture for  black-rot  or  powdery-mildew  are  very  effective  in 
controlling  it. 

Crown-gall,  now  known  to  be  a  bacterial  disease  which  causes 
knots  or  galls  on  the  roots  of  various  wild  and  cultivated  plants, 
Q 


226         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

sometimes  attacks  grape  roots  or  even  the  vines-above  ground. 
Occasionally,  the  disease  is  rather  serious,  but  it  is  not  often 
to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  vineyard  regions  of  America.  Fungi- 
cides are  useless  in  combating  the  disease  and  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  exercise  great  care  in  planting  infected  stock. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  crown-gall  ever  seriously  injures  vines  in 
northern  regions,  although  it  may  occasionally  do  so  in  the  South. 

In  California  there  is  a  somewhat  mysterious  disease  known 
as  "Anaheim  disease,"  because  of  its  having  first  made  its 
appearance  in  the  vicinity  of  Anaheim.  As  near  as  can  be 
learned,  the  disease  first  appeared  in  1884  and  then  spread 
rapidly  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  from  the  point  where  it  began 
its  ravages,  causing  direct  and  indirect  loss  of  many  millions 
of  dollars,  and  leading  to  the  abandonment  of  grape-growing 
in  some  parts  of  southern  California.  Fortunately,  in  recent 
years  the  Anaheim  disease  is  less  aggressive  but  still  does  more 
or  less  damage.  The  nature  and  the  treatment  of  this  disease 
are  not  as  yet  fully  determined,  although  several  experimenters 
are  studying  the  trouble.  Californians  whose  vineyards  suffer 
from  this  disease  should  apply  to  the  experiment  station  at 
Berkeley  for  the  latest  information  in  regard  to  it. 

Coulure  is  another  trouble  of  the  vine  in  California  of  which 
little  is  yet  known,  either  as  to  cause  or  treatment.  The  term 
signifies  the  failure  of  the  fruit  to  set  or  to  remain  on  the  clusters. 
The  trouble  occurs  in  varying  degrees  from  the  loss  of  a  few 
berries  to  the  complete  shelling  of  the  fruit  from  the  stem.  It 
is  worse  in  some  localities  than  others  and  in  some  varieties 
than  others.  Various  causes  have  been  assigned  to  the  disease, 
chief  of  which,  and  most  probable,  are  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions. 

CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

From  the  number  of  insects  and  diseases  found  on  the  grape, 
it  would  seem  that,  literally,  "pestilence  walketh  in  darkness 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL  227 

and  destruction  wasteth  at  noonday"  in  the  vineyards  of  the 
country.  But  not  many  of  the  ills  that  grape-flesh  is  heir 
to  are  ever  found  in  one  region,  and  the  vineyard  is  seldom 
attacked  by  many  diseases  or  insects  in  a  single  season.  There 
was  a  time,  as  we  have  said  before,  when  grape-growers  were 
so  beset  by  pests  which  they  could  not  control,  that  viticulture 
was  one  of  the  most  uncertain  fields  in  agriculture.  But  one 
brilliant  discovery  after  another  has  brought  the  pests  of  the 
grape  under  the  hand  of  man  until  now  there  are  but  few  that 
need  cause  much  expense  in  treatment  or  worry  as  to  the  out- 
come. 

Plants  cannot  be  attacked  by  diseases  unless  infection  is 
permitted.  It  follows  that  by  proper  sanitation  most  of  the 
insect  pests  of  the  vine  can  be  kept  out  of  the  vineyard. 

Vineyard  sanitation. 

By  changing  or  modifying  environment,  immunity  can  be 
secured  from  many  of  the  pests  of  the  grape  and  damage  may 
be  reduced  with  most  if  not  all.  Cultivation,  as  has  been  noted 
under  several  insect  pests  and  one  or  two  of  the  diseases  of 
the  grape,  is  an  effective  method  of  eliminating  grape  pests. 
In  the  case  of  insects,  it  destroys  the  insects  themselves  and 
the  hibernating  places  as  well.  The  vineyard  should  never 
be  kept  in  sod,  but  always  under  thorough  and  frequent  culti- 
vation. Vineyard  sanitation  is  greatly  improved,  also,  if 
cover-crops  which  remain  green  during  the  winter  are  planted 
after  the  last  cultivation.  Cultivation  should  usually  be  pre- 
ceded by  deep  plowing  in  the  fall  or  spring  to  turn  under  fallen 
leaves  and  weeds  or  grass  in  which  hibernating  insects  may 
pass  the  winter. 

The  surroundings  of  the  vineyard  should  be  looked  after. 
Fence-rows  and  waste  lands  which  cannot  be  cultivated  may 
often  be  burned  over  to  destroy  the  hibernating  places  of  grape 
insects.  As  a  rule,  it  is  unwise  to  plant  the  bramble  berries 


228        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

or  even  strawberries  in  vineyards,  or  adjoining  vineyards,  since 
these  plants  afford  hibernating  places  and  food  plants  for 
some  of  the  grape  insects,  especially  the  destructive  leaf- 
hopper.  Lastly,  precaution  should  be  taken  by  destroying  all 
wild  grape-vines  near  vineyards,  as  these  frequently  harbor  in- 
sects and  diseases,  the  flea-beetle  finding  the  wild  grape-vine 
almost  a  necessity  to  its  existence. 

Spraying. 

Definite  rules  cannot  be  laid  down  for  spraying  vineyards 
the  country  over.  The  literature  on  this  subject  is  plentiful 
'in  any  state  in  which  grapes  are  largely  grown,  within  the  reach 
of  the  grape-grower,  and  is  not  difficult  to  understand  once 
it  is  in  hand.  Every  grape-grower  should  secure  and  study 
the  publications  of  the  state  experiment  stations  having  to 
do  with  the  control  of  insects  and  diseases. 

The  number  of  applications  and  the  sprays  to  be  used  vary 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  America.  On  the  Pacific  slope  the 
only  application  yearly  required  in  most  vineyard  regions  is 
dusting  with  flowers  of  sulfur  for  powdery-mildew.  Several 
other  pests  may,  however,  from  year  to  year,  or  in  one  locality 
or  another,  require  special  treatment.  In  the  grape  regions 
of  New  York,  many  grape-growers  do  not  spray  at  all,  but 
these  are  usually  slovens  or  procrastinators  whose  profits 
are  small  and  uncertain.  In  the  grape  regions  of  the  north- 
eastern states,  orderly  vineyardists  spray  at  least  once  with 
bordeaux  mixture  (4-4-50)  in  which  is  put  three  pounds  of  ar- 
senate  of  lead,  no  matter  how  few  insects  and  fungi  are  present. 
This  treatment  is  given  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall.  In  more 
southern  regions  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  similar  treat- 
ment soon  after  the  first  leaves  appear,  again  after  the  blos- 
soms fall  and  every  two  weeks  thereafter  until  the  grapes 
begin  to  turn  in  color,  making  as  many  as  four,  five  or  even 
six  applications  in  all.  To  these  regular  applications  of  bor- 


PLATE  XVIII.  —  Herbert  (Xf). 


GRAPE   PESTS   AND    THEIR   CONTROL  229 

deaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead,  contact  insecticides,  as 
some  of  the  nicotine  preparations,  may  have  to  be  added ;  or, 
for  special  purposes  as  specified  in  discussing  the  several  pests, 
cheap  molasses  is  added.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether 
the  grape  can  be  grown  with  commercial  success  where  insects 
and  fungi  prevail  and  are  so  pestiferous  as  to  require  annually 
more  than  two  or  three  applications  of  spraying  mixtures. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
MARKETING  THE  CROPS  AND  VINEYARD   RETURNS 

VITICULTURE,  as  all  divisions  of  agriculture,  is  made  up  of 
two  quite  distinct  phases  of  activity:  growing  the  crop  and 
marketing  the  crop.  The  subjects  to  be  treated  in  this  and 
the  next  chapter  belong  rather  more  to  marketing  than  to 
cultural  activities.  Treated  in  detail,  these  operations  con- 
stitute matter  sufficient  for  a  separate  treatise,  and  only  an 
outline  of  present  practices  is  in  place  in  a  text  such  as  this 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  fruit.  The  several  operations 
to  be  discussed  are  picking,  packing,  storing,  shipping  and 
marketing. 

HARVESTING  IN  THE  EAST  AND  NORTH 

As  the  consummation  of  the  care  of  the  vine,  the  in-gathering 
of  the  crop  is  celebrated  in  all  European  countries  with  re- 
joicings in  song,  dance  and  mirth.  In  America  the  vintage  is 
less  of  an  event  than  in  Europe,  but  it  is  more  picturesque  and 
diverting  than  the  harvest  of  most  other  crops.  It  is  work  in 
which  youth  and  old  age,  as  well  as  those  in  the  prime  of  life 
in  both  sexes,  can  take  part  and  is  reputed  as  a  most  healthful 
occupation.  For  these  reasons,  the  grape  harvest  in  America, 
as  in  Europe,  has  somewhat  the  air  of  a  holiday,  so  that  workers 
are  usually  readily  found  for  the  several  operations  of  harvest- 
ing. Laborers  come  as  grapes  begin  to  ripen  from  near-by 
cities  and  towns  and  neighboring  country-sides  in  such  numbers 
that  the  care  of  the  crop  is  speedily  accomplished. 

230 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  231 


Pickers. 


As  a  rule,  pickers  are  hired  by  the  piece  rather  than  by  the 
day,  experience  having  demonstrated  that  so  paid  they  do  more 
and  better  work.  There  is  usually  much  diversity  in  race, 
age  and  condition  of  life  of  pickers  so  that  harmonious  and 
efficient  work  is  scarcely  possible  without  a  competent  foreman 
in  charge  who  must  often  be  assisted  by  a  sub-foreman. 
Efficient  supervision  doubles  the  picking  capacity  of  a  gang  of 
workers,  and,  moreover,  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  fruit  is 
picked  and  packed  with  proper  care.  In  hiring  pickers,  it  is 
usually  stipulated  that  a  part  of  the  pay  is  to  be  reserved  until 
the  close  of  the  season;  otherwise  those  disposed  to  have  a 
holiday  leave  when  the  weather  becomes  unpleasant  or  seek 
greener  pastures  when  the  grapes  become  scarce. 

Time  to  pick. 

Unlike  some  fruits,  grapes  must  not  be  picked  until  they  are 
fully  ripe,  as  unripe  grapes  do  not  mature  after  picking.  Grapes 
not  matured  lack  the  necessary  percentage  of  sugar  and  solids 
to  keep  well  and  have  not  developed  their  full  flavor.  Many 
growers  make  the  mistake  of  sending  grapes  to  the  market 
before  fully  ripe,  a  mistake  easily  made  with  some  varieties 
because  they  acquire  full  color  before  full  maturity.  Color, 
therefore,  is  not  a  good  guide  as  to  the  time  to  pick.  In  the 
northern  and  eastern  states,  late  varieties  of  grapes  may  be 
allowed  to  hang  on  the  vines  for  some  little  time  after  maturity, 
the  late  autumn  suns  giving  them  a  higher  degree  of  sweetness 
and  perfection.  Some  growers  run  the  risks  of  light  frosts  to 
further  maturity  and  to  secure  the  added  advantage  of  the 
removal  of  many  leaves  from  the  vines.  Ripeness  is  indicated 
by  a  combination  of  signs  difficult  to  describe  but  easily  learned 
by  experience.  These  signs  are :  first,  a  characteristic  color ; 
second,  full  development  of  flavor  and  aroma ;  third,  a  softer 


232         MANUAL   OF    AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

texture  of  the  pulp  and  a  slight  thickening  of  the  juice  so  that 
it  is  more  or  less  sticky ;  fourth,  the  ends  of  the  stems  turn 
from  green  to  brown ;  fifth,  the  berries  pull  more  readily  from 
their  stems ;  sixth,  the  seeds  are  free  or  more  nearly  free  from 
the  pulp  and  usually  turn  from  green  to  brown. 

Picking  appliances. 

But  few  appliances  are  needed  in  picking  grapes.  Shears 
are  a  necessity.  These  are  of  special  make  and  can  be  bought 
from  dealers  in  horticultural  supplies,  costing  from  75  cents  to 
$1.  Some  growers,  after  picking,  pack  the  fruit  in  the  field 
in  the  receptacles  in  which  it  is  to  go  to  market.  The  greater 
number,  however,  pick  in  trays  which  are  taken  to  the  packing- 
house and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  fruit  is  wilted  before 
packing  for  shipment.  Trays  may  be  of  several  sizes  and 
shapes,  but  are  usually  shallow  flats  holding  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty-five  pounds.  The  picked  fruit  is  taken  from  the  vine- 
yard to  the  packing-shed  in  a  wagon  with  flexible  springs  to 
prevent  jarring  and  jolting.  Large  growers  usually  have 
specially  built  one-horse  platform  wagons,  the  front  wheels  of 
which  pass  under  the  platform. 

Picking  accounts. 

It  is  no  small  matter  to  keep  a  picking  account  with  pickers. 
Business-like  growers  use  one  of  several  kinds  of  tickets  or  tags 
in  keeping  accounts.  Probably  the  most  common  method  is  to 
give  a  ticket  to  the  picker  when  the  receptacle  of  grapes  is 
delivered,  the  grower  either  keeping  half  of  the  original  or  a 
duplicate  of  it.  Objections  to  ticket  systems  are  that  the 
pickers  often  lose  the  tickets,  are  irregular  in  returning  them, 
or  exchange  them  with  other  pickers.  To  obviate  the  dis- 
advantages of  tickets,  some  growers  use  tags  which  bear  the 
picker's  name  and  are  attached  to  his  person.  These  tags 
have  marginal  numbers  or  divisions  which  are  canceled  by  a 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  233 

punch  as  pickers  deliver  the  grapes.  Still  another  method  is 
to  keep  book  accounts  with  each  picker  in  which  case  payment 
is  made  by  the  pound,  each  receptacle  being  put  on  the  scales 
as  brought  in  from  the  field,  credit  being  given  for  the  number 
of  pounds.  It  is  the  duty  of  those  in  charge  to  see  that  each 
picker  finishes  the  row  or  the  part  of  the  row  to  which  he  is 
assigned,  and  that  he  does  not  wander  over  the  vineyard  in 
search  of  the  best  picking. 

Packing-houses  and  their  appliances. 

The  commercial  grape-grower  must  have  a  house  for  packing 
and  storing.  Houses  differ  in  design  and  fitting  for  almost 
every  vineyard.  Sometimes  the  house  is  a  combination  one 
for  packing  and  storing.  Often  the  packing-house  is  a  half- 
way place  between  the  vineyard  and  the  shipping  station,  in 
which  case  it  is  an  open  shed  or  a  lightly  constructed  building. 
In  these  field  packing-houses  there  are  usually  no  provisions  for 
storing.  The  better  types  of  combined  houses  are  provided 
with  a  cellar  for  the  storage  of  grapes,  the  first  floor  is  used  for 
packing,  and  the  attic  provides  a  place  for  the  storage  of  baskets 
and  crates.  In  all  such  houses  provision  must  be  made  for 
thorough  ventilation,  especially  for  the  storage  cellar  if  the 
grapes  are  to  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time.  Properly  ven- 
tilated, the  temperature  of  the  grape  cellar  can  be  kept  as  low  as 
50°  F.  during  September  and  October.  The  cellar  floor  in  these 
houses  is  usually  of  dirt  better  to  regulate  the  moisture-content 
of  the  room.  Often  the  first  floor  is  divided  into  two  rooms, 
one  to  be  used  for  packing  and  the  other  as  a  shipping  room. 
A  good  combination  packing-and-storage-house  of  this  type 
can  be  built  for  $1000  to  $2000.  Now  that  cold  storage  facilities 
can  be  secured  in  most  grape-growing  regions,  and  the  rates  of 
storage  are  becoming  more  reasonable,  there  is  less  need  of 
storage-houses. 

Packing-houses  are  so  simple  in  construction  and  may  be  so 


234        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


different  in  design  that  it  is  neither  possible  nor  necessary  to 
describe  them  in  detail.  A  building  that  protects  the  workers 
from  the  elements  and  affords  conveniences  in  packing  serves 
the  purpose.  Such  a  packing-house,  which  is  often  located  in 
the  vineyard,  should  be  well  lighted,  should  be  connected  with 
the  storage-room  for  baskets  and  should  have  advantages  for 
delivering  the  packages  from  the  storage-room  to  the  packing- 
room  and  from  the  packing-room  to  the  shipping-room.  Its 
size  will  depend  on  the  quantities  of  grapes  to  be  packed.  The 
house  must  be  built  so  that  it  can  be  kept  clean  and  sweet. 

Every  packing-house,  whatever  the  design,  must  be  furnished 
with  tables  for  holding  the  trays  while  the  fruit  is  being  packed. 
Usually  these  tables  are  so  made  that  the  picking  trays  are  set 

before  the  packers 
on  an  inclined  table. 
The  packer  transfers 
the  grapes  from  the 
trays  into  the  bas- 
kets in  which  the 
fruit  is  to  be  sold. 
The  trays  of  grapes 
as  they  come  from 
the  field  are  set  be- 
fore the  packers 
either  in  front  or  a 
little  to  the  right  of 
the  worker,  who  then 
packs  the  fruit  into 
the  basket  from  the  left.  As  the  baskets  are  filled,  they  are 
placed  on  a  flat  ledge  or  shelf  in  front  of  the  packer  and  are 
then  taken  off  by  an  attendant.  Empty  baskets  are  usually 
held  in  store  on  a  higher  shelf  convenient  to  the  packer  and 
from  time  to  time  are  replenished  by  the  attendant.  Figure  46 
shows  a  packing-table  of  the  kind  just  described.  Sometimes 


FIG.  46.     Packing  grapes  on  a  packing-table. 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  235 

the  packing-table  is  circular  and  revolves,  the  packers  sitting 
about  the  table.  The  baskets  are  held  on  the  lap  and  the 
packer  takes  the  grapes  off  the  table  which  is  turned  as  fresh 
fruit  is  brought  in.  This  circular  table  is  not  in  general  use ; 
its  only  advantage  is  that  it  permits  the  packer  to  select  from  a 
larger  quantity  of  fruit. 

Grading  grapes. 

Grapes  are  more  easily  graded  than  most  other  fruits;  for 
usually  there  are  but  two  grades,  firsts  and  culls.  It  is  difficult 
to  specify  exactly  what  firsts  are,  since  a  number  of  factors 
must  be  considered  which  bring  in  play  the  judgment  of  the 
grader.  At  least,  firsts  must  have  the  following  qualities : 
The  bunches  must  be  approximately  uniform  in  size;  there 
must  be  few  or  no  berries  missing  from  the  stems ;  the  grapes 
must  be  fully  ripe,  of  a  uniform  degree  of  ripeness  and  uniformly 
colored;  and  the  fruit  must  be  free  from  insect  and  fungous 
injuries.  It  is  easier  to  give  specifications  for  culls,  since  all 
grapes  not  firsts  are  culls. 

In  large  vineyards,  only  good  fruit  or  the  best  fruit  is  worth 
grading.  It  is  more  advisable  to  sell  poor  fruit  by  the  ton  with 
little  or  no  grading.  It  follows,  also,  that  the  higher  the  price, 
the  more  special  the  market,  and  the  more  carefully  the  crop  is 
picked,  the  more  profitable  it  is  to  grade.  The  work  of  grading 
is  done  in  the  packing-shed  when  the  fruit  is  transferred  from 
the  trays  into  the  selling  receptacles.  A  pair  of  slender  scissors 
made  for  the  purpose,  to  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  horti- 
cultural supplies,  is  used  to  trim  out  diseased  and  crushed 
berries.  The  fruit  must  be  permitted  to<*wilt  for  a  few  hours, 
a  half  day  or  overnight,  before  it  can  be  graded  to  advantage. 
In  this  work  of  grading,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  fruit  clean  and  fresh,  to  sort  out  broken  bunches  and 
to  preserve  the  bloom.  The  less  handling,  the  more  finely 
finished  is  the  product. 


236 


MANUAL    OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 


Grape  packages  in  eastern  grape  regions. 

Packages  for  grapes  are  less  varied  than  those  for  any  other 
fruit,  selling  receptacles  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains being  much  the  same  for  all  regions.  Dessert  grapes  are 
universally  packed  in  gift  packages  —  that  is,  packages  which 
are  given  away  when  the  fruit  is  sold  —  and  this  insures  a 
clean  dainty  package.  It  seems  imperative  that  a  uniform 
style  of  package  should  be  used  the  country  over  for  the  general 
market,  but  up  until  this  time,  although  there  have  been  both 
national  and  state  laws  passed,  uniformity  has  not  been  secured. 
A  national  law  is  needed  establishing  standard  commercial 
packages  so  that  the  grower  may  safely  ship  from  one  state  to 
another  without  being  a  law-breaker.  Such  a  package  should 
be  based  on  cubic-measure  and  not  on  weight  as  is  often  ad- 
vocated ;  for  grapes  cannot  be  shipped  without  some  loss  from 

sampling  in  transit ;  and  there 
are  also  losses  in  weight  by 
evaporation  so  that  the 
grower,  although  trying  to 
comply  with  the  law,  may 
become  technically  a  law- 
breaker if  the  standard  is 
based  on  weight. 

The  most  popular  package 
for  the  grape  in  eastern 
grape  regions  is  the  Climax 

A>7     m-  basket  made  in  various  stvles 

47.     Climax  baskets  in  two  sizes. 

and  sizes.  These  are  cheap, 
easily  packed  and  handled,  nest  well  in  shipment  and  are 
durable.  Three  sizes  are  commonest  in  use,  the  five-pound,  the 
ten-pound  and  the  twenty-pound  basket.  The  five-pound 
basket  usually  holds  only  a  little  over  four  pounds ;  the  ten- 
pound  about  eight  pounds ;  and  the  twenty-pound  rather  less 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  237 

than  twenty  pounds.  Two  sizes  of  Climax  baskets  are  shown 
in  Fig.  47.  It  is  commonly  understood,  however,  that  the 
packages  are  short  in  weight,  and  as  grapes  are  retailed  by  the 
basket  and  not  by  the  pound,  short  weight  does  not  really 
deceive. 

These  baskets  are  made  of  thin  wood  veneer  with  a 
light  wood  binding  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The  cover  is  of 
wood  and  is  usually  fastened  on  with  staples.  The  handle  is 
either  of  wood  or  of  wire.  When  well  made,  the  baskets  are 
firm  and  symmetrical,  without  splinters  and  are  clean  and 
white.  Packages  carried  over  from  year  to  year  become  dingy 
in  color,  but  the  wood  may  be  whitened  by  fumigating  in  the 
storage-room  with  sulfur.  The  baskets  also  become  yellow 
and  discolored  if  left  in  the  sun  and  must,  therefore,  be  stored 
in  clean,  dark,  dry  rooms. 

When  grapes  are  sold  by  weight  to  manufacturers  of  wine  or 
grape-juice,  they  are  usually  delivered  in  the  picking  trays 
which,  if  the  market  is  near  at  hand,  are  always  returned. 
If  they  are  to  be  shipped  far,  they  go  to  market  in  twenty-pound 
baskets  or  bushel  baskets,  although  the  latter  are  not  regarded 
with  favor  by  consumers. 

Packing. 

Grapes  packed  indoors,  as  has  been  said,  are  allowed  to 
stand  from  a  few  to  twenty-four  hours  after  being  picked  to 
permit  them  to  wilt.  When  thus  wilted  they  are  much  more 
easily  packed  and  do  not  shrink  in  transportation,  so  that  the 
basket  usually  reaches  the  market  well  filled  with  fruit.  Each 
bunch  of  grapes  is  placed  separately  in  the  basket  after  all  un- 
marketable berries  have  been  removed.  The  bunches  are 
arranged  in  concentric  tiers,  the  top  layer  being  placed  with 
special  care.  When  the  basket  is  filled,  the  grapes  rise  a  little 
above  the  level  of  the  basket,  care  being  taken  not  to  have  the 
fruit  project  too  much  so  that  the  grapes  will  be  crushed  when 


238        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

putting  on  the  cover.  In  all  this  work,  the  berries  are  handled 
as  little  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  bloom.  Care  is 
taken,  also,  that  the  fruit  is  free  from  spraying  material  and  is 
otherwise  clean  and  fresh.  Much  less  pains  need  be  taken  when 
the  grapes  are' packed  in  trays  to  be  sold  by  weight,  but  even  in 
this  there  must  be  method  in  filling  the  trays,  otherwise  there 
will  be  many  open  spaces  and  corners  between  bunches. 

Practically  all  commercial  grape-growers  now  use  labels  on 
their  packages.  These  not  only  add  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  packages,  but  are  a  guarantee  of  the  contents,  both  as  to 
name  of  the  variety  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit.  These  labels 
are,  also,  a  sign  by  which  a  grower's  fruit  may  be  distinguished 
and  are,  therefore,  a  valuable  advertising  medium.  Some 
growers  have  registered  their  labels  in  the  United  States 
Patent  Office  in  order  to  prevent  others  from  using  them. 
Obviously,  it  is  not  desirable  or  worth  while  to  label  a  poor 
grade  of  grapes. 

Storing  grapes. 

The  commercial  grape-grower  now  stores  his  grapes  in  cold 
storage  warehouses  if  he  keeps  them  any  length  of  time  after 
harvesting.  There  is  no  question  but  that  keeping  a  part  of 
the  crop  in  artificially  cooled  houses  is  a  great  benefit  to  the 
grape-grower,  since  it  prolongs  the  season  for  selling  by  some 
three  or  four  months.  Formerly,  native  grapes  could  be  secured 
in  general  markets  only  until  Thanksgiving  time  or  thereabouts, 
but  now  American  grapes  are  very  generally  offered  for  sale  in 
January  and  February,  while  the  European  grapes  from  Cali- 
fornia are  in  the  market  nearly  the  year  around.  The  grape- 
grower  need  make  little  or  no  preparation  of  his  product  in 
putting  it  in  cold  storage  except  to  make  sure  that  the  product 
is  first  class  in  every  respect.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  money 
and  effort  to  attempt  to  store  any  but  clean,  sound,  well- 
matured,  well-packed  grapes.  The  grape-grower,  however, 


MARKETING  THE  CROPS  239 

seldom  need  concern  himself  with  storing,  since  the  crop  is 
usually  stored  by  the  buyers. 

Few  small  growers  seem  to  have  learned  the  art  of  keeping 
grapes  in  common  storage.  There  are  but  few  difficulties  in 
keeping  European  grapes  for  several  months  after  picking  if 
they  are  stored  under  favorable  conditions.  Not  all,  but  several 
of  the  native  grapes  may  also  be  kept  practically  throughout  the 
winter  if  proper  precautions  are  taken.  Among  these  varieties 
Catawba  is  the  standard  winter  sort,  but  Diana,  lona,  Isabella, 
Rogers'  hybrids  and  Vergennes,  all  rather  commonly  grown, 
may  be  kept  by  the  small  grower. 

To  insure  keeping,  these  native  grapes  must  be  handled  most 
carefully.  The  fruit  is  picked  a  few  days  before  it  is  dead  ripe 
and  the  bunches  placed  in  trays  holding  forty  or  fifty  pounds. 
It  is  important  that  the  temperature  be  reduced  gradually  so 
that  there  are  no  sudden  changes.  If  the  nights  are  cool,  a 
valuable  aid  is  to  leave  the  grapes  out-of-doors  in  crates  the 
night  after  they  are  picked,  placing  them  in  a  cool  building  or 
dry  cellar  early  the  next  morning.  *  The  cellar  or  store-room 
should  be  well  ventilated  and  should  be  such  that  the  tem- 
perature is  not  variable,  care  being  taken  that  the  air  in  every 
part  of  the  storage  room  is  changed.  Draughts,  however,  should 
be  avoided  or  stems  and  berries  will  shrivel.  If  a  temperature 
from  40°  to  50°  can  be  maintained,  the  varieties  named  may  be 
kept  until  March  or  April.  An  expensive  store-room  is  not 
necessary  and  ice  to  cool  the  room  is  not  only  unnecessary  but 
undesirable. 

If  the  storage-room  is  too  dry,  the  grapes  wilt  and  lose  flavor ; 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  atmosphere  is  -too  damp,  the  grapes 
mold.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  to  strike  a  medium  between  an 
atmosphere  too  dry  and  one  too  wet.  It  is  possible  that  a  light 
fumigation  with  sulfur  or  formaldehyde  might  help  to  keep  down 
molds  in  these  common  storage  grape-rooms,  but  as  to  the  value 
of  fumigation  there  seems  to  be  no  experimental  evidence. 


240        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Grapes  grown  on  clay  lands  are  said  to  be  firmer  and  to  keep 
better  than  those  grown  on  gravel  or  lighter  soils.  Some  years 
ago  there  was  an  association  in  Ohio  known  as  The  Clay- 
Growers  Association  which  handled  only  grapes  grown  on  clay 
lands.  The  members  of  this  association  believed  that  their 
grapes  were  much  more  desirable  for  storage  than  grapes  from 
regions  where  the  soil  was  lighter. 

HARVESTING  AND  HANDLING  MUSCADINE  GRAPES 

The  Muscadine  grapes  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states  are  unique  in  vine  and  fruit,  are  used  for  different  pur- 
poses and  go  to  different  markets  from  the  grapes  of  the  North, 
so  that  they  may  be  considered  almost  a  distinct  fruit.  Not 
only  are  cultural  requirements  peculiar  to  this  fruit,  as  we  have 
seen,  but  the  .methods  of  harvesting  and  marketing  are  quite 
distinct.  These  are  well  set  forth  by  Husmann  and  Dearing1  as 
follows : 

"  Rotundifolia  vines  have  been  almost  entirely  grown  on  over- 
head arbors  in  the  past,  the  fruit  being  made  into  wine,  and 
under  such  conditions  the  general  practice  of  jarring  the  grapes 
from  the  vines  is  perhaps  the  most  practical  method  of  harvest- 
ing. If  the  vines  are  trained  to  upright  trellises  or  if  the  fruit 
is  intended  for  shipping  or  table  use  the  grapes  should  be  picked 
by  hand  in  order  to  be  sound  and  clean.  On  account  of  the 
presence  of  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  mixed  with  the  grapes  jarred 
from  the  vines,  wine  and  grape-juice  manufacturers  will  pay  5 
to  15  cents  a  bushel  more  for  hand-picked  grapes.  The 
growers  who  make  a  practice  of  hand  picking  claim  that  the 
work  can  be  done  at  practically  no  greater  expense  than  is 
necessary  to  shake  off  and  clean  a  crop,  and  the  increased 
price  obtained  for  the  fruit  will  more  than  pay  the  difference. 

1  Husmann,  Geo.  C.,  and  Dearing,  Charles.  The  Muscadine  Grapes, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  273 :  33-36.  1913. 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  241 

"  A  description  of  the  harvesting  of  the  Rotundifolia  grapes  by 
the  jarring  method  will  be  interesting  to  those  not  familiar  with 
it.  Poles  are  attached  to  sheets  of  canvas  measuring  (3  by  12 
feet  and  having  leather  handles.  A  man  is  placed  at  each  end 
of  the  sheets  and  four  men  with  two  sheets  work  together.  The 
wide  sides  of  the  two  sheets  are  brought  close  together  under 
each  vine,  with  the  trunk  of  the  vine  in  the  middle.  The  vines 
are  then  jarred,  the  berries  falling  into  the  sheets.  Those  not 
caught  by  the  sheets  or  that  have  fallen  to  the  ground  by  the 
shaking  of  the  trellis  when  the  fruit  of  the  adjoining  vines  was 
harvested,  etc.,  and  which  are  usually  of  the  best  quality,  are 
picked  by  hand.  The  writers  are  informed  that  it  costs 
approximately  15  cents  a  bushel  to  harvest  the  fruit  on  the 
ground  and  12  cents  to  harvest  that  which  falls  on  the  sheets. 

"The  fruit  is  put  in  boxes  or  barrels,  and  if  the  quantity  is 
not  large  the  leaves,  sticks,  etc.,  which  become  mixed  with  the 
fruit  are  removed  by  hand.  If  there  is  a  considerable  quantity 
of  fruit  some  mechanical  means,  such  as  ordinary  grain  fan 
mills,  are  used  to  clean  it.  After  cleaning,  the  fruit  is  hauled  or 
shipped  to  the  winery.  In  wineries  with  modern  equipment 
there  are  blowers  which  thoroughly  clean  the  fruit.  These  are 
located  near  the  end  of  the  elevators  that  carry  the  fruit  to  the 
crusher. 

"A  common  and  very  objectionable  practice  followed  in 
harvesting  Rotundifolia  grapes,  especially  by  the  jarring 
method,  is  that  of  gathering  the  fruit  all  at  once,  whereas  there 
should  be  at  least  three  periods  of  harvesting.  When  harvested 
at  one  time  the  best  quality  of  fruit  ripens,  falls  to  the  ground, 
and  is  lost  before  the  harvest  is  commenced  and  the  last  part 
of  the  crop  is  thrashed  from  the  vines  in**a  half-ripe  condition 
along  with  the  ripe  fruit.  In  this  manner  not  only  is  the  first 
and  best  fruit  entirely  lost,  but  the  harvested  fruit  is  inferior 
in  quality,  which  necessarily  results  in  a  poor  product  from  the 
entire  yield.'' 


242        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Returns  from  Muscadine  grapes. 

"  Great  variations  occur  in  the  yields  from  Rotundifolia  vines. 
At  times  there  are  record-breaking  yields  and,  again,  small  yields 
are  reported,  the  small  yields  resulting  from  black-rot,  coulure, 
wet  weather,  self-sterility,  lack  of  cultivation,  fertilization, 
lack  of  pruning,  age  of  vines,  and  various  other  causes.  In 
spite  of  this,  Rotundifolia  vines  are  said  to  be  among  the 
safest  and  most  prolific  of  fruit-bearing  plants.  While  in  one 
of  the  largest  Rotundifolia  vineyards  there  has  been  only  a 
partial  crop  during  the  last  three  years,  owing  to  various 
causes,  another  grower  reports  a  yield  of  177  bushels  of  grapes 
from  4-year-old  James  vines,  in  addition  to  a  bale  of  cotton 
to  the  acre.  A  Florida  grower  estimated  his  crop  of  white 
Rotundifolia  and  Thomas  grapes  for  the  season  of  1911  at 
280  bushels  to  the  acre.  An  average  yield  of  27  bushels  an 
acre  from  4-year-old  vines,  100  bushels  from  5-year-old  vines, 
and  150  bushels  to  the  acre  when  the  vines  are  in  full  bearing 
should  be  obtained. 

"The  prices  paid  for  Rotundifolia  grapes  depend  on  the 
season,  the  quality  of  fruit,  and  the  market.  In  years  when  the 
crop  is  short  better  prices  are  usually  paid  than  when  there  is  a 
heavy  crop.  Aside  from  the  grapes  sold  and  shipped  to  wineries, 
grapes  as  a  rule  sell  for  more  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns  than 
in  smaller  places,  the  local  demand  being  somewhat  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population.  In  such  localities  fruit  of  good 
quality  will  bring  a  much  better  price  than  inferior  fruit. 
Hand-picked  fruit  in  half-bushel  peach  baskets  or  in  berry 
boxes  usually  brings  from  $1  to  $2  per  bushel.  Grapes  har- 
vested by  jarring  are  usually  sent  to  the  wineries  and  bring 
an  average  of  75  cents  per  bushel  of  60  pounds.  The  highest 
price  paid  for  this  quality  of  fruit  was  reached  in  1910,  when 
$2.25  per  bushel  (f.o.b.  shipping  point)  was  paid  for  white 
Rotundifolia. 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  243 

"In  many  localities  certain  growers  have  built  up  quite  a 
reputation  for  themselves  in  choice,  hand-picked  fruit,  which 
they  ship  to  special  customers  in  distant  markets.  For  this 
purpose  the  James  variety  is  usually  grown  because  the  berries 
adhere  well  and  are  of  good  size  and  flavor.  Several  growers 
ship  as  far  north  as  New  York  and  Boston,  getting  from  $2.00 
to  $2.50  gross  per  bushel  crate.  In  shipping,  three  styles  of 
carriers  are  used  —  the  24-box  strawberry  crate,  the  6-basket 
peach  crate,  and  the  8-pound  basket.  More  attention  should 
be  given  to  this  phase  of  the  industry.  The  varieties  best 
suited  for  shipping  are  the  James,  Memory,  Flowers,  and  Mish. 

"In  the  fall  of  1910  shipments  of  the  James,  Thomas,  and 
Eden  varieties  were  sent  from  the  Rotundifolia  experiment 
vineyard  at  Willard,  N.  C.,  to  Washington  D.  C.,  part  of  the 
consignment  being  in  strawberry  boxes  and  the  remainder  in 
bushel  baskets.  No  important  difference  could  be  noted  in 
the  two  lots  on  their  arrival  in  Washington.  The  James  variety 
arrived  in  perfect  condition  in  both  packages;  of  the  Eden 
30  per  cent  and  of  the  Thomas  35  per  cent  had  shelled.  More 
extensive  experiments  along  this  line  are  contemplated/' 

HANDLING  THE  GRAPE  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Grapes  are  grown  in  California  for  three  purposes,  wine, 
raisins  and  the  table.  The  handling  of  the  crop  for  raisins  and 
wine  is  best  taken  up  in  a  discussion  of  these  products  in  the 
chapter  on  by-products  of  the  grape,  leaving  only  table  grapes 
to  be  discussed  at  this  place. 

The  table-grape  industry  of  the  Pacific  slope  is  dependent  on 
the  wide  distribution  of  the  product  in 'eastern  markets  for  a 
profitable  sale  of  the  crop,  since  production  is  so  great  that  but 
a  small  part  of  the  crop  is  consumed  in  the  markets  of  the  Pacific 
slope.  The  growers  in  this  region,  therefore,  have  special 
problems,  chief  of  which  are  those  of  successful  shipment  over 


244        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

long  distances.  California  annually  ships  in  the  neighborhood 
of  10,000  carloads  of  table  grapes,  all  of  which  must  be  handled 
within  a  period  of  about  two  months.  As  competition  in- 
creases, it  becomes  more  and  more  necessary  to  extend  the 
area  over  which  the  fruit  is  to  be  sold ;  to  lengthen  the  marketing 
season  through  cold  storage ;  and  for  both  of  these  purposes  to 
devise  new  or  to  improve  present  methods  of  handling  the  fruit. 
The  two  requisites  for  the  successful  shipment  of  this  great  bulk 
of  grapes  are :  The  fruit  must  reach  the  markets  in  sound 
condition;  and  it  must  have  sufficient  market-holding  quality 
to  remain  sound  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  after  it  arrives 
in  the  markets.  Experience  has  thoroughly  demonstrated  to 
grape-growers  in  California  that  decay  in  grapes  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  presence  of  injuries  to  the  grape  berries,  to 
the  pedicels  or  to  the  stems  of  the  bunches.  Methods  of 
handling  grapes,  therefore,  and  the  type  of  package  used, 
must  be  such  that  the  product  is  injured  as  little  as  possible. 

Careful  handling. 

In  the  shipment  of  European  grapes  from  California,  it  has 
been  found  that  it  pays  to  go  to  much  extra  trouble  in  handling 
the  crop.  The  bunches  are  picked  with  care  to  avoid  bruising 
or  crushing  berries,  and  as  far  as  possible  they  are  lifted  only  by 
the  main  stems.  They  are  then  laid  with  care  in  the  picking 
trays  which  are  filled  only  one  layer  deep.  In  moving  the 
trays  to  the  packing-house,  they  are  handled  carefully,  the 
trays  being  moved  only  on  wagons  with  springs.  In  sorting, 
special  care  is  taken  to  remove  all  injured  and  unsound  berries 
and  not  to  injure  others  in  the  bunch,  here  again  handling  the 
clusters  by  the  stems.  In  packing,  the  bunches  are  placed 
firmly  in  the  baskets  with  care  not  to  crush  or  bruise  the  stems 
or  to  injure  the  pedicels  of  the  berries.  A  slight  injury  of 
either  berry  or  pedicel  permits  the  spores  of  the  fungus  causing 
decay  to  gain  entrance  into  the  fruit. 


MARKETING   THE   CROPS  245 

Shipping  packages. 

The  most  common  package  for  table-grapes  in  California  is  a 
square  basket  holding  about  five  pounds.  These  baskets  are 
placed  for  shipment  in  fours  in  crates.  The  bunches  of  some 
varieties  may  be  too  large  for  these  small  baskets,  and  these 
extra  large-clustered  grapes  are  packed  in  oblong  baskets  hold- 
ing in  the  neighborhood  of  eight  pounds,  two  baskets  filling  a 
crate.  No  good  filler  seems  yet  to  have  been  devised  for 
packing  grapes  in  California.  The  cork  dust  in  which  grapes 
from  the  Mediterranean  are  received  is  not  available  and  a 
good  substitute  has  not  yet  been  found.  Sawdust  is  sometimes 
used  but  has  not  proved  satisfactory  in  holding  the  decay  and 
the  fruit  absorbs  disagreeable  flavors  from  the  wood.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  grapes  from  California  are  sent  to  eastern 
markets  packed  in  dry  redwood  sawdust  and  these  seem  to 
come  through  in  good  condition  and  not  to  have  absorbed  a 
disagreeable  flavor.  Reports  seem  to  indicate  that  this  specially 
selected  redwood  sawdust  is  proving  much  better  than  the 
ordinary  sawdust  experimented  with  some  years  ago. 

Shipping. 

Considerable  work  has  been  done  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  determine  how  table-grapes  could 
best  be  shipped  from  the  far  West  and  reach  the  eastern  mar- 
kets in  good  condition.  The  crop  is,  of  course,  shipped  in  re- 
frigerator cars  and  much  depends  on  the  cooling  of  these  cars 
and  especially  on  the  temperature  at  which  the  grapes  are  kept 
while  in  transit.  To  carry  well  over  the  3000  miles  of  mountain 
and  desert,  heat  and  cold,  the  best  type  of  refrigerator  car 
must  be  used.  Tt  does  not  appear  that  the  pre-cooling  so  ad- 
vantageous to  citrous  and  other  tree-fruits  is  worth  the  trouble 
and  expense  with  table-grapes,  as  it  does  not  seem  to  prevent 
decay.  Cooling  cannot  be  substituted  for  careful  handling, 


246        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

which  seems  as  yet  the  most  necessary  precaution  to  be  taken  in 
the  preparation  of  these  grapes  for  eastern  shipment. 

MARKETING 

Table-grapes  from  both  eastern  and  western  grape  regions 
are  now  almost  entirely  shipped  in  carload  lots.  Since  few 
grape-growers  are  prepared  to  load  a  car  quickly  with  grapes, 
some  kind  of  cooperation  is  required,  or  the  crop  must  be 
handled  by  large  buyers.  Cooperative  methods  are  becoming 
more  and  more  popular,  although  a  large  part  of  the  grape  crop, 
both  East  and  West,  is  now  handled  by  buyers. 

There  are  several  important  advantages  in  selling  through  a 
cooperative  organization.  Thus,  in  selling  cooperatively,  the 
grapes  are  graded  and  packed  in  accordance  with  one  standard ; 
more  favorable  transportation  rates  can  be  secured  by  a  co- 
operative association ;  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  output 
can  be  distributed  to  the  grape  markets  of  the  country  without 
the  disastrous  competition  that  attends  individual  marketing. 
In  some  of  these  organizations,  also,  supplies  needed  by  the 
grape-grower  in  producing  a  crop  are  purchased  more  economi- 
cally than  by  individuals ;  in  particular,  grape  packages  can 
be  purchased  better  by  an  organization  than  by  an  individual. 

As  the  grape  industry  and  competition  grow  in  the  different 
regions  of  the  country,  the  necessity  of  forming  marketing 
organizations  becomes  greater.  Such  organizations  must  be 
founded  on  the  principles  which  many  experiments  have  shown 
best  govern  fruit-marketing  associations.  It  is  not  possible  to 
discuss  these  principles  at  length,  but  the  following  fundamentals 
will  suffice : 

An  ideal  cooperative  association  is  one  in  which  there  are  no 
profits  nor  dividends.  Every  member  of  the  whole  organized 
association  is  a  producer.  All  of  the  product  grown  by  a 
member  is  sold  through  the  association.  The  association  is 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  247 

democratic,  all  members  having  an  equal  voice  in  its  manage- 
ment and  all  sharing  alike  in  its  successes  and  failures.  When 
profits  arise  of  necessity,  they  are  distributed  to  the  members 
of  the  association  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  business  each 
has  done.  The  work  of  the  organization  is  conducted  at  as 
near  cost  as  possible  and  profits  are  declared  only  after  expenses, 
depreciation,  interest  on  capital  for  future  operations  are 
deducted.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  plan  of  the  organization  is 
to  give  each  member  as  nearly  as  possible  the  exact  price  his 
fruit  has  brought  in  the  markets. 

VINEYARD  RETURNS 

Grape-growing  as  a  business  is  a  comparatively  new  industry 
in  America.  It  is  true  that  the  first  attempts  at  growing  this 
fruit  were  made  to  found  an  industry,  but  these  were  complete 
and  dismal  failures,  and  the  start  in  growing  grapes  in  America 
eventually  came  as  a  pleasing  hobby.  In  evolving  from  a 
hobby  into  vineyard  culture  on  a  large  scale,  the  business  side 
of  the  industry  long  lagged.  At  present,  with  increasing  com- 
petition, manifold  uncertainties  in  vineyard  conditions,  and 
much  unbusinesslike  administration,  interest  in  cultural  opera- 
tions, with  which  pioneers  in  the  industry  were  chiefly  concerned, 
is  eclipsed  by  the  conception  that  grape-growing  is  a  highly 
developed  commercial  enterprise  requiring  for  success  careful 
business  management. 

Unfortunately  there  is  nowhere  a  substantial  body  of  figures 
from  which  growers  can  obtain  a  fair  conception  of  what  the 
outgo  and  income  of  average  vineyards,  in  grape  regions  are. 
The  value  of  such  data  to  investors  or  to  those  making  an  effort 
to  keep  track  of  the  finances  of  their  business  is  obvious,  and 
an  attempt  is  made  here  to  put  the  reader  in  possession  of 
figures  that  ought  to  be  helpful.  The  data  given,  although 
scant  and  fragmentary,  show  fairly  accurately  the  cost  of 


248        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

producing  grapes,  selling  prices  and  profits  in  the  culture  of 
this  fruit  in  one  of  the  great  grape  regions. 

The  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  carrying 
on  experiments  to  determine  the  outgo  and  income  from  vine- 
yards in  the  Chautauqua  grape-belt.  The  work  is  not  yet 
finished,  nor  could  the  findings  be  published  in  detail  before 
being  sent  out  by  the  Station,  but  F.  E.  Glad  win,  in  charge  of 
the  work,  has  consented  to  set  down  summaries  of  costs  and 
returns  taken  from  vineyards  at  Fredonia,  which  will  serve 
as  a  guide  to  planters  of  grapes  in  this  region  at  least : 

First  Year 

Interest  on  value  of  land  @  $200  per  acre $12.00 

Preparation  of  land 8.00 

Cost  of  vines  per  acre 12.00 

Planting 4.00 

Cultivating 6.00 

Total  expenditure  for  first  year $42.00 

Second  Year 

Interest  on  value  of  vineyard  @  $225  per  acre $13.50 

Cultivating,  hand  hoeing,  etc 9.25 

Pruning 1.00 

Total  expenditure  for  second  year $23.75 

Third  Year 

Interest  on  value  of  vineyard  @  $250  per  acre $15.00 

Pruning 2.50 

Posts  (cost  of)  @  .10     240 24.00 

Setting  and  driving 6.50 

Wire  and  wiring,  staples,  etc 11.65 

Tying  and  twine 1.45 

Cultivating,  plowing,  harrowing 9.25 

Spraying 4.00 

No.  baskets  sold®  .16  per  basket     500  .     ...      $80.00 

Cost  of  baskets  @  $20  per  thousand 10.00 

Picking  @  .01  per  basket 5.00 


PLATE  XIX.  —  lona  (Xf). 


MARKETING    THE    CROPS  249 

Packing  @  .01  per  basket $5.00 

Hauling  .003 1.50 

Outgo  for  third  year $95.85 

Income  . $80.00 

Fourth  Year 

Interest  on  value  of  vineyard  @  $300  per  acre $18.00 

Pruning . 2.50 

Tying 2.90 

Spraying  and  materials 4.00 

Cultivating,  plowing,  harrowing,  hand-hoeing  and  plowing  back 

one  furrow 9.25 

Trellis  upkeep,  driving  posts,  tightening  wires,  etc 2.50 

Pulling  and  poling  out  brush 1.69 

No.  baskets  sold  @  .16  per  basket     1000      .     .     .    $160.00 

Cost  of  baskets  @  $20  per  thousand 20.00 

Picking  @  .01  per  basket 10.00 

Packing  @  .01  per  basket 10.00 

Hauling  .003 3.00 

Outgo  for  fourth  year $83.84 

Income $160.00 

Outgo  for  four  years $245.44 

Income  for  four  years 240.00 

Estimates  for  Succeeding  Years 

Gross  income $125-200 

Outgo 75-85 


CHAPTER  XIV 
GRAPE  PRODUCTS 

OVER-PRODUCTION,  with  the  attendant  losses  caused  by 
glutted  markets,  is  a  factor  which,  like  frosts  and  freezes,  is 
ever  in  the  mind  of  the  grape-grower.  No  season  passes  but 
that  some  of  the  grape  regions  of  the  country  suffer  from  over- 
production. Not  uncommonly  the  grape  industry  in  a  region 
is  better  off  in  a  season  when  the  crop  is  small  and  prices  high, 
than  when  the  crop  is  large  and  prices  low.  In  every  part  of 
the  country  where  grapes  are  grown,  over-production  has  been 
a  great  deterrent  to  viticulture ;  this,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
grape-growers  have  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to 
manufacture  products  from  this  fruit.  Thus,  wine  and  raisins 
are  made  from  the  grape  in  California,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
harvest  in  the  East  goes  into  wine,  champagne  and  grape-juice. 
But  the  growth  of  prohibition  now  threatens  the  wine  and 
champagne  industries  of  the  country,  in  fact  may  be  said  to 
have  driven  them  to  the  wall,  making  the  need  of  new  outlets 
in  manufactured  products  a  greater  necessity. 

Under  these  conditions,  grape-growers  must  seek  in  every 
way  to  enlarge  the  sale  of  the  crop  to  manufacturers  with  the 
hope  that  thus,  together  with  more  perfect  distribution  of  his 
commodities,  the  inroads  made  by  prohibition  on  the  industry 
may  be  offset  and  the  over-production  of  table-grapes  be 
better  prevented.  With  this  brief  emphasis  on  the  importance 
of  manufactured  products  of  the  grape,  we  approach  the  dis- 

250 


GRAPE    PRODUCTS  251 

cussion  of  the  several  possible  outlets  to  over-production  in 
this  fruit. 

WINE 

The  manufacture  and  use  of  wine  in  America,  as  has  been 
intimated,  is  likely  to  cease  through  prohibition.  Therefore, 
whatever  may  be  said  of  this  product  of  the  grape  is  of  less  and 
less  interest  to  grape-growers.  However,  a  few  years  of  grace 
probably  remain  for  the  making  of  wines  in  America,  and  since 
wine-making  yet  offers  the  greatest  outlet  for  the  grape  crop, 
next  to  table-grapes,  wine  must  be  considered  as  a  factor  in  the 
grape  industry. 

Since  the  demand  and  price  for  grapes  depend  very  largely  on 
the  kind  of  wine  to  be  made,  it  is  necessary  to  characterize  the 
wines  made  in  America.  Wine,  it  should  be  said,  is  the  product 
of  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the  grape.  Alcoholic  fermentations 
made  from  other  fruits  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  wines. 
Natural  wines  are  divided  into  three  broad  groups ;  dry,  sweet 
and  sparkling  wines.  Dry  wines  are  those  in  which  sugar  has 
been  eliminated  by  fermentation ;  sweet  wines  those  in  which 
sufficient  sugar  remains  to  give  a  sweet  taste ;  and  sparkling 
wines  are  those  which  contain  sufficient  carbonic  acid  gas  to 
give  a  pressure  of  several  atmospheres  in  the  bottle.  The 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  produced  in  sparkling  wines  by  fermenta- 
tion in  the  bottle  of  a  dry  wine. 

The  color  in  these  three  classes  of  wine  may  be  red  or  white, 
depending  on  whether  or  not  the  color  is  extracted  from  the 
skins  in  the  process  of  fermentation.  To  make  red  wine,  of 
course,  the  grapes  to  be  fermented  mtist  have  red  coloring 
matter  in  skin  or  juice  or  both.  Each  of  these  groups  of  wine 
includes  a  very  large  number  of  kinds  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  region,  the  locality  or  the  name  of  the  vineyard  in  which 
a  wine  is  made.  Wines  are  still  further  distinguished  according 
to  the  year  of  the  vintage. 


252        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Wine-making. 

There  are  four  distinct  stages  in  the  making  of  wine  after 
the  grapes  are  grown.  The  first  is  the  harvesting  of  the  grapes 
when  they  have  reached  the  proper  stage  of  maturity,  which  is 
known  as  "wine-making  ripeness."  This  stage  of  ripeness  is 
determined  by  means  of  a  must-scale  or  saccharometer.  The 
wine-maker  squeezes  the  juice  from  a  number  of  bunches  of 
grapes  into  a  receptacle  into  which  he  drops  the  must-scale, 
whereupon  the  sugar-content  of  the  juice  is  indicated  on  the 
scale,  determining  whether  the  proper  stage  of  ripeness  has 
been  reached.  Suitable  varieties  of  grapes  having  been  grown, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  be  permitted  to  hang  on  the  vine  until 
the  proper  degree  of  ripeness  is  developed,  after  which  they 
are  delivered  at  the  winery  as  free  as  possible  from  injury  or 
decay. 

The  second  stage  is  the  preparation  of  the  grapes  for  fermen- 
tation. The  grapes  are  weighed  on  arriving  at  the  winery  and 
are  then  conveyed  either  by  hand  or  more  often  by  a  mechanical 
conveyor  to  the  hopper  or  crusher.  The  ancient  method  of 
crushing,  which  still  prevails  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  was  to 
tramp  the  grapes  with  bare  feet  or  wooden  shoes.  Tramping 
has  been  superseded  by  mechanical  crushers  which  break  the 
skin  but  do  not  crush  the  seeds.  The  best  mechanical  crushers 
consist  of  two-grooved  revolving  cylinders.  As  the  grapes  pass 
through  the  crusher,  they  fall  into  the  stemmer,  a  machine 
which  tears  off  the  stems,  discharging  them  at  one  end,  while 
the  seeds,  skins,  pulp  and  juice  pass  through  the  bottom  to 
the  presses  usually  on  the  floor  below.  There  are  several  types 
of  wine-presses,  all  of  which,  however,  are  modifications  of 
screw,  hydraulic  or  knuckle-joint  power.  In  large  wineries,  the 
hydraulic  press  has  almost  driven  out  the  other  two  forms  of 
power  and  when  great  quantities  of  grapes  must  be  handled 
a  number  of  hydraulic  presses  are  usually  in  operation.  The 


OR  APE   PRODUCTS  253 

grape  pomace  is  built  up  into  a  "cheese"  by  the  use  of  cloths 
and  racks  variously  arranged.  The  "cheese"  is  then  put  under 
heavy  pressure  from  which  the  juice- or  "must"  is  quickly  ex- 
tracted. 

The  third  stage  is  fermentation.  The  "must"  is  carried 
from  the  press  into  open  tanks  or  vats  which  hold  from  500  to 
5000  gallons  or  even  more.  The  yeast  cells  which  cause 
fermentation  may  be  introduced  naturally  on  the  skins  of  the 
grapes;  or  in  many  modern  wineries  the  "must"  is  sterilized 
to  rid  it  of  undesirable  micro-organisms  and  a  "starter"  of 
"wine-yeast"  is  added  to  start  the  fermentation.  Yeast 
organisms  attack  the  sugar  and  must,  breaking  it  up  into  alco- 
hol and  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  latter  passing  off  as  it  is  formed. 
When  active  fermentation  ceases,  the  new  wine  is  drawrn  from 
the  pomace  and  is  put  into  closed  casks  or  tanks  where  it 
undergoes  a  secondary  fermentation,  much  sediment  settling 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cask.  To  rid  the  new  wine  of  this  sediment, 
it  must  be  drawn  off  into  clean  casks,  an  operation  called 
"racking."  The  first  racking  usually  takes  place  within  a 
month  or  six  weeks.  A  second  racking  is  necessary  at  the  end 
of  the  winter  and  a  third  is  desirable  in  the  summer  or  fall. 

The  fourth  stage  is  the  aging  of  the  wine.  Before  aging 
begins,  however,  the  wine  usually  must  be  rendered  perfectly 
clear  and  bright  by  "fining."  The  materials  used  in  fining  are 
isinglass,  white  of  egg  or  gelatine.  These,  introduced  into  the 
wine,  cause  undissolved  matters  to  precipitate.  The  wine  is 
now  ready  for  bottling  or  consumption.  Most  wines  acquire  a 
more  desirable  flavor  through  "aging,"  a  slow  oxidation  in  the 
bottles. 

Champagne. 

When  champagne  wines  have  gone  through  their  first  fermen- 
tation, they  are  racked  off  into  casks  to  age  until  their  quality 
can  be  ascertained,  after  which  a  blend  of  several  different 


254        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

wines  is  made.  This  blend  is  called  the  "cuvee."  The  cuvee 
is  bottled  and  a  second  fermentation  starts.  The  bottles  are 
now  put  in  cool  cellars,  corded  in  horizontal  layers  with  thin 
strips  of  wood  between  each  layer  of  bottles.  The  champagne 
in  this  stage  is  said  to  be  in  "tirage."  The  carbonic  acid  gas 
generated  at  this  second  fermentation  is  confined  in  the  bottles 
and  absorbed  by  the  wine.  When  the  bottle  is  uncorked,  the 
gas,  seeking  to  escape,  produces  the  sparkling  effect  desirable  in 
sparkling  wines.*  After  the  wine  has  been  in  tirage  for  one 
or  two  years,  the  bottles  are  placed  in  A-shaped  racks,  the  neck 
of  the  bottle  pointing  downward  so  that  the  sediment  formed 
during  fermentation  drops  to  the  cork.  To  further  the  settling 
of  the  sediment,  workmen  turn  or  shake  each  bottle  daily  for  a 
period  of  one  to  three  months.  The  bottles  are  then  taken  to 
the  finishing  room,  cork  down  and  the  wine  is  "disgorged." 
Disgorging  is  accomplished  by  freezing  a  small  quantity  of 
wine  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  containing  the  sediment,  after 
which  the  cork  is  removed  and  with  it  the  frozen  sediment.  The 
bottle  is  refilled,  recorked,  wired,  capped,  and  the  champagne 
is  ready  for  shipment. 

The  vintage. 

The  wine-making  season  the  world  over  is  known  as  the 
"vintage."  The  time  at  which  the  vintage  begins  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  region,  the  variety  of  grapes,  the  growing  season 
and  the  location  of  the  vineyard.  Its  duration,  also,  depends 
on  these  same  factors.  The  season  is  usually  lengthened  by  the 
fact  that  wine-makers  require  for  their  purposes  a  number  of 
varieties  of  grapes  which  ripen  at  different  times.  Before  or 
during  the  vintage,  representatives  of  wine  cellars  usually  make 
contracts  for  the  number  of  tons  of  grapes  required  at  a  certain 
price  a  ton. 

The  notion  prevails  that  grapes  for  wine  and  grape-juice 
need  not  be  first-class.  This  is  far  from  the  truth.  To  make 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  255 

good  wine  the  grapes  must  be  carefully  harvested,  transported 
with  as  little  injury  as  possible  and  must  be  protected  from  dirt, 
mold  and  fermentation  before  reaching  the  winery.  European 
vintagers  maintain  that  grapes  picked  at  sunrise  produce  the 
lightest  and  most  limped  wines  and  yield  more  juice.  They 
say,  also,  that  the  grapes  should  not  be  gathered  in  the  heat  of 
the  day  because  fermentation  sets  in  at  once.  These  niceties 
are  not  observed  in  America. 

Prices  paid  for  wine  grapes. 

Supply  and  demand  regulate  the  price  paid  for  wine  grapes. 
There  is  always  demand  for  good  wine  grapes,  although  a  poor 
product  often  goes  begging  for  market.  In  the  East,  the  highest 
prices  are  paid  for  the  grapes  used  in  making  champagne.  The 
champagne  region  of  the  East  is  confined  to  a  few  localities 
along  Lake  Erie  and  to  western  New  York  about  Keuka  Lake, 
where  the  industry  is  mpst  largely  developed.  The  varieties 
used  in  champagne-making  in  the  East  are  Delaware,  Catawba, 
Elvira,  Dutchess,  lona,  Diamond  and  a  few  other  sorts.  Prices 
differ  with  the  many  conditions  affecting  the  grape  and  cham- 
pagne industries,  perhaps  the  average  price  for  Catawba,  the 
grape  chiefly  used  in  making  champagne  in  this  region,  being 
from  $40  to  $50  a  ton.  Choicer  grapes,  as  Delaware,  lona 
and  Dutchess,  often  sell  from  $75  to  $100  a  ton.  Concords  are 
sometimes  utilized  in  making  dry  wines  in  the  eastern  states, 
$30  or  $40  a  ton  being  the  average  price.  Ives  and  Norton 
are  much  used  for  red  wines  and  sell  for  top  prices. 

Wine-makers  in  the  East  are  at  a  disadvantage  in  producing 
wines  other  than  champagne,  since  the  price  paid  on  the  Pacific 
slope  for  wine  grapes  is  much  lower.  Grapes  for  sweet  wine  in 
California  often  sell  as  low  as  $6  or  $7  a  ton,  the  average  price 
being  $10  or  $12.  Grapes  for  dry  wines,  such  as  Zinfandel  and 
Burger,  bring  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  $10to$12a  ton.  Choice 
varieties  of  grapes  in  this  region,  such  as  Cabernet,  Sauvignon, 


256        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Petite  Sirah  and  Riesling,  bring  from  $22  to  $24.  The  eastern 
wine-makers,  however,  have  the  advantage  of  being  close  to  the 
largest  and  best  markets  in  the  country.  Wines  made  in  the 
East  are  very  different  from  those  made  in  California  and 
supply  a  different  market. 

A  few  years  ago  most  of  the  Muscadine  grapes  grown  in  the 
South  were  used  for  wine-making.  From  these  grapes  wine 
has  been  made  since  colonial  times,  and  for  a  century  there 
have  been  some  large  vineyards  of  Muscadine  grapes  in  the 
South  from  which  wine  was  made  in  a  commercial  way.  Since 
Muscadine  grapes  do  not  sell  well  in  the  markets  in  com- 
petition with  the  grapes  of  the  North  or  the  Pacific  slope, 
the  Muscadine  grape  industry  has  been  dependent  on  the  wine 
industry  of  the  section  in  which  the  fruit  is  produced.  The 
growth  of  prohibition  in  the  South,  however,  has  driven  the 
wine  industry  to  the  North  and  West  and  there  is  now  little 
wine  manufactured  from  Muscadine  grapes  in  the  South,  al- 
though some  grapes  are  shipped  North  for  wine-making.  The 
wine  made  from  these  grapes  is  very  distinct  in  flavor  and  on 
that  account  a  special  trade  has  been  developed  for  it.  It  is 
possible  that  this  special  trade  will  keep  up  .the  demand  for 
Muscadine  wine  so  that  some  part  of  the  crop  may  be  shipped 
to  wine-making  states  to  supply  this  demand. 

GRAPE-JUICE 

When  properly  made,  grape-juice  is  the  undiluted,  un- 
sweetened, unfermented  juice  of  the  grape  and  contains  no 
preservatives,  fermentation  being  prevented  by  sterilization 
with  heat.  The  product  is  as  ancient  as  wine,  and,  therefore, 
as  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  for  all  wine-making  peoples  have 
used  new  wine  or  grape-juice  as  a  beverage.  For  centuries 
physicians  in  wine-making  countries  have  prescribed  grape- 
juice  as  it  comes  from  the  wine-press  for  certain  maladies,  the 


GRAPE    PRODUCTS  257 

treatment  constituting  an  essential  part  of  the  grape-cures  of 
European  countries.  The  process  of  making  an  unfermented 
grape-juice  that  will  keep  from  season  to  season  as  an  article  of 
commerce  is,  however,  a  modern  invention,  and  is  the  outcome 
of  the  discoveries  of  the  last  half  century  regarding  the  control 
of  the  agents  of  fermentation. 

The  manufacture  of  commercial  grape-juice  in  America,  to 
which  country  the  industry  is  confined,  began  as  a  home  prac- 
tice following  the  fundamental  processes  of  canning  fruit. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  several  inventive  minds 
discovered  methods  of  making  a  commercial  product  and  began 
'developing  markets  for  their  wares.  The  beginning  of  the 
present  century  found  the  new  industry  in  full  swing,  since 
which  time  its  growth  has  been  truly  marvelous.  In  1900 
the  amount  of  grape-juice  made  in  the  United  States  was  so 
small  as  to  be  negligible  in  the  census  report  of  that  year.  By 
1910,  the  annual  output  had  reached  for  the  whole  country  over 
1,500,000  gallons  and  at  present  writing,  1918,  it  is  well  above 
3,500,000  gallons  per  annum.  The  manufacture  of  grape-juice 
(s  no  longer  a  home  industry  but  a  great  commercial  enterprise. 
It  is  an  industry  closely  associated  with  grape-growing,  however, 
and  as  such  needs  further  consideration  here. 

Grape-juice  regions. 

The  manufacture  of  grape-juice  is  centered  in  the  Chautauqua 
grape-belt  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  So  far, 
the  demand  seems  to  be  almost  wholly  for  juices  made  from 
native  grapes,  the  juice  of  European  grapes  grown  on  the  Pacific 
slope  being  so  sweet  as  to  be  insipid.  Possibly  80  per  cent  of 
the  grape- juice  now  manufactured  in  America  comes  from  a 
single  variety,  the  Concord.  There  can  be  no  question,  how- 
ever, but  that  sooner  or  later  grape-juices  of  distinct  qualities 
will  be  made  from  many  varieties  of  grapes,  thus  giving  wider 
sale  and  greater  variation  for  the  product.  A  very  good  spark- 


258        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ling  grape-juice  is  now  on  the  market  and  its  reception  seems 
to  promise  a  great  increase  in  the  production  of  an  article 
that  closely  simulates  champagne  in  color  and  sparkling  vivacity, 
but  not,  of  course,  in  taste,  since  it  contains  no  alcohol.  The 
grape-juice  industry  has  been  started  and  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition  in  several  other  grape  regions  than  the  Chautauqua 
belt  which  is  now  its  center.  There  are  factories  at  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  using  grapes  grown  in  the  Kelly  Island  district ;  in  south- 
western Michigan  there  are  several  factories ;  and  the  industry 
still  survives  at  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  which  probably  should 
be  called  the  original  home  of  the  manufacture  of  grape-juice. 
In  the  South,  some  grape-juice  is  made  from  Muscadine  grapes, 
but  this  product  seems  not  as  yet  to  have  been  well  received  in 
the  markets. 

Commercial  methods  of  making  grape- juice. 

There  is  at  present  a  great  diversity  of  methods  and  of 
apparatus  employed  in  the  grape-juice  manufacturing  plants 
throughout  the  country.  Since  the  industry  is  in  its  infancy, 
and  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  hold  some  of  the  methods  as 
trade  secrets,  the  diversity  of  methods  and  appliances  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at.  No  doubt  there  will  be  greater  uniformity 
of  method  and  machinery  and,  therefore,  greater  efficiency,  as 
the  industry  develops. 

Husmann1  gives  the  following  account  of  the  manufacture  of 
grape-juice  in  the  eastern  states  and  in  California : 

"Sound,  ripe,  but  not  overripe,  grapes  are  used.  These  are 
first  crushed  or,  in  case  the  stems  are  to  be  removed,  are  run 
through  a  combined  stemmer  and  crusher.  If  the  machinery  is 
stationed  high  enough,  the  crushed  fruit  can  be  run  through 
chutes  directly  into  the  presses  or  kettles ;  otherwise,  it  must  be 
pumped  into  them  by  means  of  a  pomace  or  must  pump  or 
carried  in  pomace  carts  or  tubs. 

1  Husmann,  George  C.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  644. 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  259 

"  If  a  white  or  light  colored  juice  is  desired,  the  crushed  grapes 
are  first  pressed,  the  juice  which  comes  from  the  press  being 
heated  to  about  165°  F.,  skimmed,  run  through  a  pasteurizer  at 
a  temperature  of  between  175°  and  200°  F.  into  well-sterilized 
containers,  and  then  placed  in  storage. 

"If  a  colored  juice  is  desired,  the  crushed  grapes  are  heated 
immediately,  usually  in  aluminum  kettles  having  double 
bottoms,  which  prevent  the  steam  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  contents.  These  kettles  usually  contain  revolving  cylinders, 
the  arms  of  which  keep  the  crushed  grapes  thoroughly  stirred 
while  they  are  being  heated  to  about  140°  F.  The  simultaneous 
heating  and  stirring  help  to  extract  the  coloring  matter  from 
the  skins,  tear  the  cells  of  the  berries,  increase  the  quantity  of 
juice  obtained  per  ton  of  fruit,  and  give  to  the  must  many 
ingredients  of  red  wine,  with  the  substitution  of  grape  sugar  for 
alcohol  of  the  wine. 

"The  aluminum  kettles-  are  filled  and  emptied  in  rotation, 
thereby  making  continuous  manipulation  possible.  The  presses 
should  be  situated  below  the  kettles,  so  that  the  hot  juice  can 
be  drained  directly  into  them.  The  expressed  juice  is  then 
reheated  to  about  165°  F.,  skimmed,  and  run  through  the 
pasteurizer  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  white  juice  is 
handled.  The  juice  passes  from  the  pasteurizer  while  still  hot 
(about  160°  F.)  into  the  container,  which  should  be  sealed 
immediately.  The  lower  the  temperature  (above  the  freezing 
point)  at  which  these  containers  are  then  stored,  the  less  is  the 
danger  of  fermentation  and  the  more  rapidly  the  juice  will  clear 
and  deposit  its  sediment. 

"Tne  ordinary  receptacles  in  which  the  juice  is  stored  are 
5-gallon  demijohns,  20-gallon  carboys,  or  clean,  new  barrels  or 
puncheons,  well  washed  and  drained.  All  containers  should  be 
thoroughly  sterilized  before  they  are  filled,  and  the  covers,  corks, 
bungs,  cloths,  etc.,  used  in  sealing  them  should  be  scrupulously 
clean  and  carefully  sterilized.  If  barrels  or  puncheons  are  used 


260        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

as  containers,  they  are  placed  on  skids  and  firmly  wedged  to  pre- 
vent movement.  As  the  juice  cools,  air  laden  with  fermentation 
germs  is  apt  to  be  drawn  into  the  barrels  by  the  decrease  in  the 
volume  of  the  liquid.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  tight  air-filtering 
plugs  of  sterilized  cotton  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
ordinary  bungs  of  solid  wood. 

"  The  type  of  pasteurizer  differs  in  almost  every  establishment. 
As  the  industry  is  of  comparatively  recent  development  com- 
mercially, there  are  few  models  on  the  market  and  each  manu- 
facturer has  constructed  the  model  best  suited  to  his  particular 
ideas  or  requirements.  There  are  two  general  types,  however, 
(1)  open,  double-bottomed  kettles  in  which  the  juice  is  heated 
to  the  required  temperature  and  then  drawn  off,  and  (2)  con- 
tinuous pasteurizers  in  which  the  juice  is  heated  to  the  required 
temperature  as  it  passes  through  the  water  bath. 

"The  presses  also  show  great  variation  in  different  establish- 
ments, either  hydraulic,  screw  or  lever  power  being  used,  and 
there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  types  of  pomace 
containers.  Sometimes  the  crushed  grapes  are  heaped  on 
burlap  cloths  the  sides  of  which  are  folded  in,  and  these  burlaps 
are  placed  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  the  press ;  sometimes  press 
baskets  take  the  place  of  these  burlaps. 

"The  manufacturers  in  California  and  those  in  the  grape-grow- 
ing regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  seem  to  have  adopted 
entirely  different  methods  of  handling  the  juice  after  it  is  first 
pasteurized  and  stored.  Most  of  the  eastern  juices  are  red 
and  are  obtained  from  the  Labrusca  varieties,  generally  the  Con- 
cord. When  the  juice  comes  from  the  presses,  some  manu- 
facturers strain  it  to  remove  the  coarse  particles  and  then  pour 
it  directly  into  well-sterilized  bottles ;  others  siphon  it  off  the 
sediment  in  the  containers  in  which  it  is  stored  after  the  first 
pasteurization  and  pour  it  into  pasteurized  bottles.  In  either 
case,  the  bottles  are  securely  corked  and  then  repasteurized. 
The  California  juices,  however,  both  red  and  white,  are  made 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  261 

exclusively  from  Vinifera  varieties.  They  are  allowed  to  settle 
in  the  original  containers  and  are  siphoned  out  of  these  and 
carefully  filtered  to  make  them  clear  and  bright. 

"  The  clearing  of  the  juice  is  sometimes  facilitated  by  fining  or 
adding  a  small  quantity  of  a  substance  which  coagulates  and 
wrhen  settling  carries  down  with  it  the  solid  matters  causing 
cloudiness  in  the  liquid.  Such  finings  may  be  applied  at  the 
time  of  the  first  pasteurization  or  just  before  the  final  filtration 
and  bottling.  In  the  latter  case  the  juice  is  drawn  off  the 
settlings  in  containers,  the  finings  are  added,  and  the  juice 
again  pasteurized  into  other  receptacles.  When  it  clears,  it 
is  either  bottled  directly  or  first  passed  through  a  filter,  drawn 
into  carefully  sterilized  bottles,  securely  corked,  and  then  re- 
pasteurized  .  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  final  sterilization  is 
not  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  previous  one ;  otherwise, 
solid  matter  may  be  precipitated  and  the  must  clouded  again . 

"  A  simple  and  efficient  form  of  sterilizer  consists  of  a  wooden 
trough  provided  with  a  wooden  grating  which  is  raised  2  inches 
from  the  bottom  and  on  which  rest  the  filled  bottles  in  wire 
baskets.  The  trough  contains  enough  water  to  submerge  the 
bottles  and  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  185°  F.  by  means  of  a 
steam  coil  beneath  the  grating.  It  requires  about  15  minutes 
for  the  must  at  the  bottom  of  the  bottles  to  reach  that  tempera- 
ture ;  for  packages  of  other  sizes  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  test 
with  a  thermometer  in  order  to  determine  how  long  it  takes  for 
the  entire  contents  to  reach  185°. 

"  To  prevent  the  corks  from  being  expelled  during  sterilization, 
they  are  either  tied  down  with  a  strong  twine  or  with  some 
contrivance  such  as  the  cork  holder.  In- order  that  mold  germs 
may  not  enter  the  must  through  the  corks,  especially  if  a  poor 
quality  of  cork  is  used,  the  necks  of  the  corked  bottles  are 
dipped  in  heated  paraffin  before  putting  on  the  caps,  or  the 
corks  are  sealed  down  with  sealing  wax.  It  is  also  well  to  keep 
the  bottles  on  their  rider  to  prevent  the  corks  drying  out." 


262         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

Home  methods  of  making  grape-juice. 

The  principles  involved  in  making  grape- juice  in  the  home 
are  the  same  as  those  used  in  canning.  The  grapes  may  be 
crushed  by  hand  or  in  mills  similar  or  identical  with  the  small 
cider-mills  owned  by  many  farmers.  In  making  a  light-colored 
juice,  the  crushed  grapes  are  put  in  a  cloth  sack  and  hung  up  to 
drain,  or  the  filled  sack  may  be  twisted  by  two  persons  until  the 
greater  part  of  the  juice  is  expressed.  The  juice  is  then  sterilized 
in  a  double-boiler  by  heating  it  at  a  temperature  of  180°  to 
200°  F.,  care  being  taken  that  the  thermometer  never  goes  above* 
200°.  The  sterilized  juice  is  now  poured  into  a  glass  or 
enameled  vessel  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which 
it  is  drained  from  the  sediment  and  strained  through  several 
thicknesses  of  clean  flannel.  The  juice  is  now  put  in  clean 
bottles  preparatory  to  a  second  sterilization,  care  being  taken 
that  at  least  an  inch  of  space  is  left  at  the  top  for  the  liquid 
to  expand  when  heated.  The  second  sterilization  may  be 
conducted  in  a  wash-boiler  or  similar  receptacle.  The  filled 
bottles  must  not  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  but  should 
be  separated  from  it  with  a  thin  board.  The  boiler  is  filled 
with  water  up  to  within  an  inch  of  the  tops  of  the  bottles 
and  heated  until  the  water  begins  to  boil.  The  bottles  should 
then  be  taken  out  and  corked  immediately,  using  only  new 
corks.  After  corking,  the  bottles  are  further  sealed  by  dip- 
ping the  corks  in  melted  paraffin.  A  cheap  corking  machine 
is  a  great  convenience  in  this  work,  and  in  any  case  the  corks 
should  be  soaked  for  at  least  a  half  hour  in  warm  but  not 
boiling  water. 

The  process  varies  somewhat  in  the  making  of  red  grape- juice. 
The  crushed  grapes  are  heated  to  a  temperature  of  200°  F., 
and  are  then  strained  through  a  drip  bag  without  pressure,  after 
which  the  liquid  is  set  away  in  glass  or  enamel  vessels  to  settle 
for  twenty-four  hours.  Except  for  this  difference  in  the  pre- 


GRAPE    PRODUCTS  263 

liminary  treatment  of  the  juice,  the  methods  are  the  same  in 
making  the  red  or  the  light-colored  product.  For  proper  keeping 
it  is  not  necessary  to  let  the  juice  settle  after  it  is  strained,  but  a 
clearer  and  brighter  product  is  obtained  if  the  juice  is  permitted 
to  settle.  In  either  case  the  grape-juice  should  keep  indefinitely 
if  the  work  has  been  well  done.  As  soon  as  bottles  are  opened, 
fermentation  begins  with  the  formation  of  alcohol. 

RAISINS 

The  grape  is  best  conserved  as  a  raisin.  Canning  is  seldom 
practiced  with  this  fruit.  A  raisin  is  a  dried  grape.  Tree- 
fruits  are  evaporated  as  by-products,  but  the  raisin  is  a  primary 
product.  This  is  a  difference  worth  noting ;  for  with  tree- 
fruits  the  cream  of  the  crop  goes  to  the  fresh  fruit  market,  while 
with  the  grape  the  entire  crop  of  raisin  varieties  may  go  into 
the  cured  product.  The  raisin  industry  is  dependent  on  a 
sunny  and  rainless  climate  and  hence  in  America  is  confined 
to  the  grape  regions  of  certain  parts  of  California.  In  this 
state,  raisin-making  is  a  rich  resource  of  the  grape-grower,  the 
annual  output  now  averaging  well  above  200,000  pounds,  grown 
on  120,000  acres  of  land,  and  having  a  market  value  of  $10,000- 
000.  Fresno  County,  California,  produces  nearly  60  per  cent 
of  the  output  of  the  state  and  the  city  of  Fresno  is  the  center 
of  the  industry.  The  raisin  industry  does  not  stand  alone  in 
California,  as  some  raisin  grapes,  notably  Muscat  of  Alexandria, 
are  good  dessert  sorts  and  are  also  much  used  for  wine  and 
brandy.  Only  the  first  crop  of  the  variety  named  is  used  for 
raisins,  while  practically  all  of  the  second  crop  each  season  is 
made  into  wine  and  brandy. 

Raisins  proper  are  mostly  made  from  the  Muscat  of  Alex- 
andria, although  other  large,  white,  sweet  grapes  are  sometimes 
used.  Sultana  raisins,  naturally  seedless,  are  made  from 
Sultanina  and  the  Sultana.  The  dried  currants  of  commerce 


264        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

are  made  from  grapes,  and  of  these  California  produces  small 
quantities  from  White  Corinth. 

The  following  account  of  raisin-making  is  given  by  Husmann  i1 
"In  the  raisin  districts  grapes  are  ripe  by  the  middle  of 
August,  the  season  often  lasting  into  November.  The  average 
time  necessary  for  drying  and  curing  a  tray  of  raisins  is  about 
three  weeks,  depending  on  the  weather,  the  earliest  picked  grapes 
drying  in  ten  days  and  the  later  ones  often  taking  four  weeks  or 
more. 

"The  method  of  drying  is  very  simple.  The  bunches  are 
cut  from  the  vines  and  placed  in  shallow  trays  2  feet  wide,  3 
feet  long,  and  1  inch  high  on  which  the  grapes  are  allowed  to 
sun-dry,  being  turned  from  time  to  time  by  simply  placing  an 
empty  tray  upside  down  on  the  full  one  and  then  turning 
both  over  and  taking  off  the  top  tray.  After  the  raisins  are 
dried  they  are  stored  away  until  they  are  packed  and  pre- 
pared for  shipment.  Some  of  the  larger  growers,  in  order 
not  to  run  so  much  risk  in  drying  on  account  of  rain,  and 
also  to  enable  them  to  handle  the  crop  fast  enough,  have 
curing  houses,  where  the  curing  is  finished  after  having  been 
partially  done  outside.0 

Dipping  and  scalding  raisins. 

"The  operation  of  dipping  and  scalding  is  designed  to  accom- 
plish several  purposes,  namely,  to  cleanse  the  fruit,  to  hasten 
its  drying,  and  to  give  the  dried  fruit  a  lighter  color.  In  dipping 
and  drying,  the  fruit,  immediately  after  being  cut  from  the 
vines,  is  either  dipped  in  clear  water  to  first  rinse  it  of  particles  of 
dust  and  other  foreign  matter,  or  it  is  taken  direct  to  the  scalder 
and  immersed  in  a  boiling  alkaline  mixture  called  'legia'  (lye) 
until  the  grapes  show  an  almost  imperceptible  cracking  of  the 
skin,  the  operation  consuming  perhaps  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  of  a  minute.  This  dipping  calls  for  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
1  Husmann,  George  C.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  No.  349.  1916. 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  265 

operator,  the  duration  of  the  emersion  depending  on  the  strength 
and  temperature  of  the  mixture  and  the  condition  of  the  fruit. 
Desiccation  follows  the  scalding  process,  which  is  accomplished 
on  trays  in  the  sun,  the  same  as  undipped  raisins  cured  entirely 
by  solar  heat.  On  account  of  the  scald  they  cure  rapidly,  and 
the  fruit  is  also  often  of  lighter  color  when  cured. 

"The  following  formula  has  been  used  for  Sultana  and  Sul- 
tanina  grapes  at  Fresno : 

''Fifteen  pounds  of  'Greenbank's  98-per  cent  lye'  are  boiled  in  100 
gallons  of  water.  This  mixture  is  for  grapes  containing  25  per  cent  of 
sugar.  Should  their  sugar  content  be  less,  enough  lye  is  added  to  re- 
move the  bloom  and  open  the  pores  of  the  skin  of  the  grapes.  After 
dipping,  the  grapes  are  spread  on  trays  and  sulphured  for  1  to  1 J  hours. 
Observation  will  show  whether  it  may  be  necessary  to  vary  this  formula 
a  trifle  to  suit  conditions  of  ripeness  and  influence  of  temperature. 
The  length  of  time  required  for  dipping  is  ascertained  by  experience, 
and  differs  with  the  strength  of  the  lye,  the  heat  of  the  solution,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  skins  of  the  grapes." 

Packing  raisins. 

"The  raisins  as  received  at  the  packing  house  are  weighed 
and  the  loose  raisins  and  those  that  are  to  be  shipped  as  dried 
grapes  are  immediately  run  through  a  stemmer  and  grader 
which  stems,  cleans,  and  assorts  the  raisins  into  three  or  four 
different  grades,  after  which  they  are  packed  and  shipped  to 
various  parts  of  the  country,  some  also  being  exported.  Those 
producing  cluster  or  layer  raisins  (if  they  have  not  already 
been  equalized)  are  first  stored  in  the  equalizing  rooms.  In 
these  rooms  the  sweat  boxes,  filled  with  layers  of  new  raisins, 
are  stacked  and  left  usually  from  10  to  30  days,  or  long  enough 

for  the  overdried  berries  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  under- 

%» 

dried  ones.  This  sweating  also  properly  softens  and  toughens 
the  stems,  which  prevents  their  breaking  and  enables  them  to 
hold  the  berries  better.  In  California,  where  the  climate  is  so 
dry,  no  first  class  pack  could  be  made  without  thus  first  equaliz- 
ing the  raisins.  After  having  been  equalized  the  raisins  are 


266        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


taken  out,  assorted  into  the  different  grades,  and  placed  in 
trays  holding  5  pounds  each.  The  trays  of  the  same  grades 
are  then  pressed  and  stacked  away  in  piles  ready  for  packing. 

"  Pressing  the  raisins  so  that  they  look  well  and  so  none  are 
burst  open  is  work  requiring  experience  and  good  judgment. 
It  takes  four  pressed  trays  to  fill  a  20-pound  box.  The  loose 
raisins  that  have  dropped  from  the  cluster  through  handling 
before  they  were  equalized  are  also  graded,  the  largest,  of 
course,  making  the  choicest  pack." 

Classes  of  raisins. 

"Previous  to  the  consolidated  organization  of  the  packers 
the  three  best  grades  of  raisins  on  the  stems  were  known  as 
'Imperial/  'Dehesia,'  and  'Fancy 'Clusters/  respectively.  The 
California  Raisin  Growers  Association  established  classi- 
fication and  grades  similar  to  those  of  the  Spanish  raisin 
packers,  on  which  the  French  trade  names  are  also  based.  The 
original  Spanish,  as  well  as  English  terms  with  which  they 
correspond,  and  the  different  grades  in  descending  order  of 
quality  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


SPANISH  TERMS 

FRENCH  TERMS 

ENGLISH  TERMS 

CALIFORNIA  TERMS 

Imperial 

Imperiaux  Extra 

Extra  Imperial 

Six-Crown 

Imperial  Bajo 

Imperiaux 

Cluster 

Cluster 

Royan  Bajo 

Royaux 

Imperial  Cluster 

Five-Crown 

Cuarta  (4a) 

Surchoix  Extra 

Royal  Cluster 

Cluster 

Quinta  (5a) 

Choix  Extra 

Choicest 

Four-Crown 

Choice  Cluster 

Cluster 

Three-Crown 

Cluster 

Two-Crown 

Cluster 

"  The  grading  is  optical,  as  a  result  of  experience,  there  being 
no  linear  or  cubic  measurement  standard.     Thus,  a  nice  cluster 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  267 

with  all  berries  of  large  size,  would  be  a  'Six-Crown  Cluster/ 
such  being  the  very  finest  raisins  on  the  stem.  'Five-Crown 
Clusters '  were  formerly  the  'Dehesia'  cluster,  and  'Four- 
Crown  Clusters'  were  formerly  'Fancy  Clusters/  Gra 'es  less 
than  'Four-Crown'  on  the  stems  (the  'Three-Crown'  and 
'Two-Crown')  are  known  as  'Layers,'  or  'London  Layers.' 
These  are  placed  in  boxes  containing  20  pounds  net ;  in  half 
boxes  of  10  pounds;  and  quarter  boxes  of  5  pounds;  and  in 
fancy  boxes  containing  2^  pounds.  Loose  raisins,  or  raisins 
off  the  stem,  are  graded  into  Two-Crown,  Three-Crown,  and 
Four-Crown  raisins  by  being  run  through  screens  the  meshes  of 
which  are  thirteen  thirty-seconds,  seventeen  thirty-seconds, 
and  twenty-two  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  size,  respectively. 
The  Sultan ina  (erroneously  called  Thompson  Seedless),  and 
the  Sultana  are  packed  in  12-ounce  cartons,  45  to  the  case." 

Seeded  raisins. 

"The  invention  of  a  raisin-seeding  machine  by  George  E. 
Pettit  in  the  early  seventies,  and  its  use,  has  had  a  wonderful 
effect  on  the  industry. 

"Seeded  raisins  were  first  put  on  the  market  by  the  late  Col. 
William  Forsythe,  of  Fresno,  Cal.,  who  at  first  found  it  very 
difficult  to  dispose  of  20  tons.  The  output  in  the  last  15  years 
has  increased  from  700  tons  to  50,000  tons  per  annum,  and  their 
popularity  is  constantly  increasing.  In  1900  about  14,000 
tons  were  placed  on  the  market,  in  1905  about  21,000  tons, 
in  1910  about  31,000  tons,  and  in  1913  about  49,000  tons.  The 
seeding  machines  in  present  use  can  turn  out  300  tons  per  day. 
Seeded  raisins  are  now  the  most  important  branch  of  the  raisin 
industry. 

"A  brief  outline  of  how  seeded  raisins  are  prepared  will 
prove  interesting.  The  raisins  are  first  exposed  to  a  dry 
temperature  of  140°  F.  for  three  to  five  hours,  after  which  they 
are  put  through  a  chilling  process  so  that  the  pedicels  can  be 


268        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

easily  removed,  and  are  then  thoroughly  cleansed  by  being 
passed  through  cleaning  machines.  They  are  then  taken  by 
automatic  carriers  to  another  room,  spread  out  on  trays, 
and  exposed  to  a  moist  temperature  of  130°  F.  to  bring  them 
back  to  their  normal  condition.  The  raisins  pass  to  the 
seeding  machine,  where  they  are  carried  between  rubber- 
faced  rollers  and  the  impaling  device  of  the  seeding  machine 
which  catches  the  seeds  and  removes  them  from  the  fruits  as 
they  are  flattened  between  the  surfaces  of  the  rollers.  The 
impaled  seeds  are  removed  from  the  roller  by  a  whisking 
device  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  caught  in  a  separate  receptacle. 
The  seeded  raisins  pass  through  chutes  to  the  packing  tables 
on  the  floor  below. 

"  The  seeded  or  loose  raisins  are  packed  in  50-pound  boxes ; 
in  1 -pound  cartons,  36  to  the  case ;  in  12-ounce  cartons,  45  to 
the  case ;  and  some  in  bulk  in  25-pound  boxes. 

"  Information  has  recently  been  sent  out  to  the  effect  that  the 
California  Associated  Raisin  Co.  is  arranging  to  do  away  with 
the  grades  in  seeded  raisins,  so  there  will  only  be  one  grade. 
This  contemplates  using  all  of  the  Three-Crown,  the  smallest 
of  the  Four-Crown,  and  the  best  of  the  Two-Crown  in  one 
blended  grade. 

"From  the  seeds,  formerly  used  as  a  fuel,  a  number  of  by- 
products are  now  made. 

"The  seeds  and  pedicels  removed  from  the  raisins  in  seeding 
vary  from  10  to  12  per  cent  of  the  original  weight  of  the  raisins 
according  to  their  conditions  and  quality. 

"The  grading,  seeding,  facing,  and  packing  have  become 
separate  branches  of  the  industry,  and  the  work  is  nearly  all 
done  by  especially  trained  women,  who  have  become  experts 
at  it.  The  establishments  in  which  this  work  is  done  furnish 
employment  for  over  5000  persons.  The  aggregate  pay  roll 
each  month  during  the  season  is  between  $200,000  and 
$350,000." 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  269 

GRAPE-VINEGAR 

A  very  good  vinegar  can  be  made  from  grapes,  although 
as  yet  this  outlet  for  over-production  is  not  largely  utilized 
in  America.  Grapes  which  are  unsuitable  for  raisins,  dessert, 
wine-making  or  grape-juice  can  be  used  for  vinegar-making. 
Under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  grape-vinegar  cannot 
compete  in  cheapness  with  vinegar  made  from  numerous  other 
products  and  must,  therefore,  always  sell  at  a  high  price. 
Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  high-grade  grape-vinegar 
can  be  manufactured  at  a  less  price  than  good  wine.  The 
production  of  grape-vinegar  requires  as  much  care,  but  possibly 
not  as  much  expert  knowledge,  as  the  making  of  wine.  Unlike 
the  latter,  however,  the  vinegar  can  be  produced  on  a  small 
scale  for  domestic  purposes  by  any  one  possessing  a  knowledge 
of  wine-making  or  vinegar-making. 

Grape-vinegar  may  be  manufactured  from  either  white  or 
red  grapes,  although  that  from  white  grapes  is  generally  pre- 
ferred. It  may  be  made  either  directly  from  grapes  or  from 
wine,  the  acetifying  process  being  the  same  for  both.  There 
are,  therefore,  two  distinct  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  this 
product.  First,  there  must  be  alcoholic  fermentation  by  which 
the  sugar  in  the  grape  is  changed  into  alcohol  with  the  escape 
of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Second,  acetic  fermentation  must  follow 
the  alcoholic  fermentation  by  which  the  alcohol  is  changed  into 
acetic  acid. 

BY-PRODUCTS  OF  GRAPE  INDUSTRIES 

There  are  several  valuable  by-products  in  the  wine-making 
and  grape-juice  industries,  and  even  faisin-making  yields  a 
by-product  in  the  seeds  taken  from  the  raisins.  The  utilization 
of  these  wastes  has  been  rendered  profitable  in  Europe,  and 
there  is  no  reason  why  by-products  should  not  yield  consider- 
able profit  in  America,  as  a  few  already  do.  Good  authorities 


270        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

state  that  if  all  the  wastes  of  the  grape  crop  could  be  utilized 
the  value  of  the  crop  would  be  increased  over  10  per  cent. 

Pomace. 

The  pomace  or  marc,  the  residue  left  after  grape  pressing, 
is  the  most  valuable  of  the  by-products  of  the  wine  and  grape- 
juice  manufacturers.  If  the  pomace  is  permitted  to  ferment, 
and  afterwards  is  distilled,  a  product  called  pomace-brandy  is 
made.  Unscrupulous  wine-makers  often  add  water  and  sugar 
to  pomace,  after  which  it  is  refermented  and  the  resulting 
product  is  sold  as  wine.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
word  "wine"  as  applied  to  this  product  is  a  misnomer,  the 
total  amount  of  such  wine  made  and  consumed  in  America  is 
large.  Piquette  is  another  product  in  which  the  pomace  is 
put  into  fermenting  vats,  sprinkled  with  water  and  the  liquid 
after  a  time  is  drawn  off,  carrying  with  it  the  wine  contained 
in  the  pomace.  This  liquid  is  re-used  in  other  pomace,  until 
it  is  high  enough  in  alcoholic  strength,  when  it  is  distilled  into 
"piquette"  or  "wash." 

In  Europe,  the  pomace  from  stemmed  grapes  is  said  to  make  a 
sheep  and  cattle  food  of  more  or  less  value  when  salted  slightly 
and  stored  in  silos.  The  pomace  is  also  oftentimes  used  as  a 
manure,  for  which  it  has  considerable  to  recommend  it,  being 
rich  in  potash  and  nitrogen.  Acetic  acid  is  made  from  pomace 
by  drying  it  in  vapor-tight  rooms,  during  which  process  50  to 
60  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  pomace  becomes  vapor,  and  this, 
condensed,  yields  considerable  quantities ,of  acetic  acid. 

Cream-of -tartar. 

The  lees  of  wine,  the  sediment 'which  settles  in  the  casks  in 
which  new  wine  or  grape- juice  is  stored,  form  a  grayish  or 
reddish  crust  on  the  inside  of  the  receptacle.  This  is  the  argol 
or  wine-stone  of  the  wine-maker,  and  from  it  is  made  cream-of- 
tartar,  an  article  considerably  used  in  medicine,  the  arts  and 


GRAPE   PRODUCTS  271 

for  culinary  purposes.  From  20  to  70  per  cent  of  the  lees  con- 
sist of  either  cream-of-tartar,  or  of  calcium  tartrate,  the  latter 
also  having  commercial  value.  Red  wines  are  much  richer  in 
argol  than  white  wines.  A  ton  of  grapes  yields  from  one  to  two 
pounds  of  argol.  This  product  becomes  a  source  of  considerable 
profit  in  large  wineries  and  in  grape-juice  manufacturing  plants. 

Seeds. 

In  Europe,  the  seeds  are  separated  from  the  pomace  and  used 
in  various  ways.  They  are  also  utilized  to  a  smaller  extent  in 
America,  especially  when  separated  from  raisins.  The  seeds 
are  used  as  food  for  horses,  cattle  and  poultry,  for  which  they 
are  said  to  have  considerable  value.  If  crushed  and  ground,  the 
seeds  yield  a  clear  yellow  oil  which  burns  without  smoke  or 
smell  and  which  may  also  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  olive 
oil.  A  ton  of  grapes  yields  from  forty  to  one  hundred  pounds 
of  seeds  from  which  may  be  made  from  three  to  sixteen  pounds 
of  oil.  This  oil  is  also  used  as  a  substitute  for  linseed  oil  and 
in  soap-making.  Besides  oil,  the  seeds  yield  tannin.  After 
the  oil  and  tannin  have  been  taken  from  the  seeds,  there  remains 
a  meal  which  may  still  be  utilized  as  a  stock  food  or  as  a  fertilizer. 

DOMESTIC  USES  FOR  GRAPES 

At  present,  when  food  conservation  is  being  emphasized 
everywhere,  mention  of  the  domestic  use  for  grapes  is  partic- 
ularly appropriate.  The  country  over,  no  fruit  is  more 
generally  grown  than  the  grape ;  yet  grape  products  are  not  as 
common  for  home  use  as  those  of  several  other  fruits,  although 
many  attractive  and  appetizing  preserves  can  be  made  from 
grapes  without  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  sugar,  spices  or 
other  ingredients.  Few  housekeepers  realize  the  high  quality 
and  the  cheapness  of  the  products  that  can  be  made  from  the 
grape.  Thus,  grape-juice,  jelly,  jam,  marmalade,  grape-butter, 


272        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

catsup,  spiced  grapes,  canned  grapes,  conserves  in  which  grapes 
are  used,  preserves  and  mince-meat  are  among  the  desirable 
culinary  products  easily  and  cheaply  prepared  from  home-grown 
grapes  or  those  bought  in  the  market.  Only  simple  domestic 
utensils  are  needed  in  the  preparation  of  any  of  these  products. 

Grape-sirup  is  less  easily  produced,  yet  can  be  made  in  any 
home  without  the  addition  of  sugar.  It  is  not  only  a  good  table 
sirup,  but  is  a  most  useful  sugai  substitute  for  the  preparation 
of  other  culinary  products.  The  Muscadine  grapes  in  the 
South,  to  be  purchased  by  almost  every  householder  in  south- 
eastern United  States,  in  particular,  are  useful  for  these  domestic 
products.  Recipes  for  all  of  these  products  can  be  found  in  cook 
books,  and  one  or  two  bulletins  and  circulars  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  give  recipes  for  preparing 
grapes  for  domestic  purposes.  Farmers'  Bulletin  859  entitled 
Home  Uses  for  Muscadine  Grapes  is  a  particularly  valuable 
publication  on  this  subject. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  several  large  manufacturers  of 
grape-juice  are  putting  on  the  market  grape  jams,  jellies  and 
marmalades.  It  would  seem  that  these  delicious  and  wholesome 
products  would  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  markets  of  the  country, 
and  that  their  manufacture  would  prove  profitable  to  the  maker 
and  to  the  grape-grower.  The  greater  the  use  of  grapes  for 
their  products,  the  better  the  grower  can  breast  the  blows  of 
unfavorable  markets  and  over-production. 


PLATE  XX.  —  Isabella  (Xf). 


CHAPTER   XV 
GRAPE-BREEDING 

CHANCE,  pure  and  simple,  has  been  the  greatest  factor  in 
the  production  of  varieties  of  American  grapes.  From  the 
millions  of  wild  plants,  an  occasional  grape  of  pre-eminent  merit 
has  caught  the  eye  of  the  cultivator  and  has  been  brought  into 
the  vineyard  to  be  the  progenitor  of  a  new  variety.  Or  in  the 
vineyards,  more  often  in  near-by  waste  lands,  from  the  prodigious 
number  of  seedlings  that  spring  up,  pure  or  cross-bred,  a  plant 
of  merit  becomes  the  foundation  of  a  new  variety.  An  inter- 
esting fact  in  the  domestication  of  the  four  chief  species  of 
American  grapes  is  that  none  came  under  cultivation  until 
forms  of  them,  striking  in  value,  had  been  found.  Catawba, 
representing  the  Labrusca  grapes;  the  Scuppernong,  the 
Rotundifolias ;  Norton,  from  Vitis  cestivalis;  Delaware  and 
Herbemont  from  the  Bourquiniana  grapes ;  and  Clinton  from 
Vitw  viilpina,  are,  after  a  century,  scarcely  excelled,  although 
in  each  species  there  are  now  many  new  varieties. 

That  our  best  grapes  have  come  from  chance  is  not  because 
of  a  lack  of  human  effort  to  produce  superior  varieties.  Of  all 
fruits,  the  grape  has  received  most  attention  in  America  from 
the  generation  of  plant-breeders  just  passing.  Grape-breeders 
have  produced  2000  or  more  varieties,  a  medley  of  the  hetero- 
geneous characters  of  a  dozen  species.  /That  so  many  of  this 
vast  number  are  worthless  is  due  more  to  a  lack  of  knowledge 
of  plant-breeding  than  to  a  lack  of  effort,  for  the  order  and 
system  in  plant-breeding  that  now  prevail,  disclosed  by  recent 
brilliant  discoveries,  were  unknown  to  grape-breeders  of  the 
last  century. 

T  273 


274        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 


GRAPE  HYBRIDS 

As  early  as  1822,  Nuttall,  a  noted  botanist,  then  at  Harvard, 
recommended  "hybrids  betwixt  the  European  vine  and  those 
of  the  United  States  which  would  better  answer  the  variable 
climates  of  North  America/'  In  1830,  William  Robert  Prince, 

Fig.  48,  fourth  proprietor 
of  the  then  famous  Linnean 
Botanic  Nursery  at  Flush- 
ing, Long  Island,  grew 
10,000  seedling  grapes 
"  from  admixture  under 
every  variety  of  circum- 
stance." This  was  prob- 
ably the  first  attempt  on  a 
large  scale  to  improve  the 
native  grapes  by  hybridiz- 
ing, although  little  seems  to 
have  come  of  it.  Later,  a 
Dr.  Valk,  also  of  Flushing, 
grew  hybrids  from  which 
he  obtained  Ada,  the  first 
named  hybrid,  the  intro- 
duction of  which  started 
hybridizers  to  work  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  where  grapes  were  grown. 

Soon  after  Valk's  hybrid  was  sent  out,  E.  S.  Rogers,  Fig.  49, 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  and  J.  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New 
York,  began  to  give  viticulturists  hybrids  of  the  European 
Vinifera  and  the  American  species  which  were  so  promising  that 
enthusiasm  and  speculation  in  grape-growing  ran  riot.  Never 
before  nor  since  has  grape-growing  received  the  attention  in 
America  as  given  during  the  introduction  of  Rogers'  hybrids. 
It  was  the  expectation  of  all  that  we  were  to  grow  in  America, 


FIG.  48.     William  Robert  Prince. 


GRAPE-BREEDING 


275 


in  these  hybrids,  grapes  but  little  inferior,  if  at  all,  to  those 
of  Europe. 

A  statement  of  the  difference  between  European  and  American 
grapes  shows  why  American  viticulturists  have  been  so  eager 
to  grow  either  pure-bred s  from 
the  foreign  grape  or  hybrids 
with  it. 

European  grapes  have  a 
higher  sugar-and-solid  content 
than  the  American  species; 
they,  therefore,  make  better 
wines  and  keep  much  longer 
after  harvesting  and  can  be 
made  into  raisins.  Also,  they 
have  a  greater  variety  of  flavors, 
which  are  more  delicate,  yet 
richer,  with  a  pleasanter  aroma, 
seldom  so  acid,  and  are  always 
lacking  the  disagreeable,  rancid 
odor  and  taste,  the  "foxiness," 
of  many  American  varieties, 
pleasant  astringency  in  some  of  the  foreign  grapes,  and  many 
varieties  are  without  character  of  flavor.  American  table- 
grapes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  refreshing,  the  unfer- 
mented  juice  makes  a  pleasanter  drink,  and  lacking  sweetness 
and  richness,  they  do  not  cloy  the  appetite  so  quickly.  The 
bunches  and  berries  of  the  European  grapes  are  larger,  more 
attractive  and  are  borne  in  greater  quantities.  The  pulp, 
seeds  and  skins  are  somewhat  objectionable  in  all  of  the  native 
species  and  scarcely  so  at  all  in  the  Ofd  World  sorts.  The 
berries  of  the  native  grapes  shell  from  the  stem  so  quickly  that 
the  bunches  do  not  ship  well.  The  vines  of  the  Old  World 
grapes  are  more  compact  in  habit  and  require  less  pruning  and 
training  than  do  those  of  the  native  grapes ;  and,  as  a  species, 


FIG.  49.     E.  S.  Rogers. 


There   is,   however,   an   un- 


276        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

probably  through  long  cultivation,  they  are  adapted  to  more 
kinds  of  soil,  to  greater  differences  in  environment  and  are 
more  easily  propagated  than  the  American  species. 

Because  of  these  points  of  superiority  in  the  Old  World  grape, 
since  Valk,  Allen  and  Rogers  showed  the  way,  American  grape- 
breeders  have  sought  to  unite  by  hybridization  the  good  char- 
acters of  the  Old  World  grape  with  those  of  the  American. 
Nearly  half  of  the  2000  grapes  cultivated  in  eastern  America 
have  more  or  less  European  blood  in  them.  Yet,  despite  the 
efforts  of  the  breeders,  few  of  these  hybrids  have  commercial 
value.  Whether  because  they  are  naturally  better  fixed,  or 
long  cultivation  has  more  firmly  established  them,  the  vine 
characters  of  Vitis  vinifera  more  often  appear  in  varieties  aris- 
ing as  primary  hybrids  between  that  and  the  native  species, 
and  the  weaknesses  of  the  foreign  grape,  which  prevent  their 
cultivation  in  America,  crop  out.  Hybrids  in  which  the  vinif- 
era blood  is  more  attenuated,  as  secondary  or  tertiary  crosses, 
give  better  results. 

Several  secondary  hybrids  now  rank  among  the  best  of  the 
cultivated  grapes.  Examples  are  Brighton  and  Diamond. 
The  first  is  a  cross  between  Diana-Hamburg,  a  hybrid  of  a 
Vinifera  and  a  Labrusca,  crossed  in  its  turn  with  Concord,  a 
Labrusca ;  the  second  is  a  cross  between  lona,  also  a  hybrid 
between  a  Vinifera  and  a  Labrusca,  crossed  with  Concord. 
Both  were  grown  from  seed  planted  by  Jacob  Moore,  Brighton. 
New  York,  in  1870.  Brighton  was  the  first  secondary  hybrid 
to  attract  the  attention  of  grape-breeders,  and  its  advent  marked 
an  important  step  in  breeding  grapes. 

The  signal  success  achieved  by  hybridizers  of  the  European 
grape  with  native  species  quickly  led  to  similar  amalgamations 
among  American  species.  Jacob  Rommel,  of  Morrison,  Mis- 
souri, beginning  work  about  1860,  hybridized  Labrusca  and 
Vulpina  grapes  so  successfully  that  a  dozen  or  more  of  his  vari- 
eties are  still  cultivated.  All  are  characterized  by  great  vigor 


GR  A  PE-BREEDING 


277 


and  productiveness;  and,  although  they  lack  the  qualities 
which  make  good  table-grapes,  they  are  among  the  best  for 
wine-making.  Rommel  has  had  many  followers  in  hybridiz- 
ing native  species,  chief  of  whom 
was  the  late  T.  V.  Munson,  Fig. 
50,  Denison,  Texas,  who  literally 
made  every  combination  of 
grapes  possible,  grew  thousands 
of  seedlings  and  produced  many 
valuable  varieties. 

Improvement  by  selection. 

Selection,  continued  through 
successive  generations,  so  im- 
portant in  the  improvement  of 
field  and  garden  plants,  has 
played  but  small  part  in  the 
domestication  of  the  grape.  The 
period  between  planting  and 
fruiting  is  so  long  that  progress  would  be  slow  indeed  were  this 
method  relied  on.  Moreover,  selection,  as  a  method  in  breed- 
ing, is  possible  only  when  plants  are  bred  pure,  and  it  is  the 
experience  of  grape-breeders  that  in  pure  breeding  this  fruit 
loses  in  vigor  and  productiveness  and  that  the  variations  are 
exceedingly  slight  and  unstable.  Many  pure-bred  grapes  have 
been  raised  on  the  grounds  of  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  under  the  eyes  of  the  writer,  of  which 
very  few  have  surpassed  the  parent  or  have  shown  promise 
for  the  practice  of  selection. 

New  varieties  from  sports. 

Bud-sports  or  mutations  now  and  then  arise  in  grapes.  But 
not  more  than  two  or  three  of  the  2000  varieties  now  under 
cultivation  are  suspected  of  having  arisen  in  this  way.  It  is 


FIG.  50.     T.  V.  Munson. 


278        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

true  that  mutations  seem  to  occur  rather  often  in  grapes,  but 
they  are  easily  confused  with  variations  due  to  environment 
and  are  usually  too  vague  to  lay  hands  on.  Until  the  causes  of 
these  mutations  are  known  and  until  they  can  be  produced  and 
controlled,  but  little  can  be  hoped  for  in  the  amelioration  of 
grapes  through  mutations. 

HYBRIDIZING  THE  GRAPE 

Hybridization  has  been  the  chief  means  of  improving  the 
grape.  At  present,  from  what  is  being  accomplished  by  many 
workers,  it  looks  as  if  it  will  long  continue  to  be  the  best  means 
of  improving  this  fruit.  Since  the  grape-grower  must  depend 
on  new  varieties  for  progress,  as  old  varieties  cannot  be  changed, 
it  should  be  the  ambition  of  growers  to  produce  varieties  better 
than  those  we  now  have.  Many  amateur  and  professional 
grape-growers  in  the  past  have  found  breeding  grapes  a  pleasing 
and  profitable  hobby,  so  that  much  knowledge  has  accumu- 
lated in  regard  to  manipulating  the  plants  in  hybridization, 
and  the  results  that  follow  in  the  offspring  of  hybridization. 

Hoiv  to  hybridize. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  reader  is  familiar  with  the  botany  of 
flowers  and  the  essential  principles  in  crossing  plants.  If  he 
is  not,  he  must  carefully  study  the  structure  of  flowers,  especially 
those  of  the  grape,  so  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  different 
organs  and  to  discover  when  the  pollen  and  stigma  are  ready  for 
the  work  of  pollination.  He  should,  also,  read  any  one  of  several 
current  books  on  plant-breeding. 

The  first  task  in  crossing  grapes  is  to  remove  the  anthers 
before  the  flower  opens,  a  process  known  as  emasculation. 
This  is  necessary  to  prevent  self-pollination.  This  first  opera- 
tion having  been  performed,  the  cluster  of  grape-flowers  must 
be  tied  securely  in  a  bag  to  protect  it  from  foreign  pollen  which 
otherwise  would  surely  be  carried  to  the  stigma  by  insects. 


GRA  PE-BREEDING  279 

As  soon  as  the  stigma  is  ready  to  receive  the  pollen,  the  bag 
is  removed  and  pollen  from  the  male  parent  is  applied,  after 
which  the  bag  is  again  put  on  the  flower  to  remain  until  the 
grapes  are  well  set.  By  examining  the  stigmas  in  the  flowers 
of  uncovered  grapes,  the  operator  can  tell  approximately 
whether  the  covered  stigma  is  ready  to  receive  pollen.  The 
time  required  after  covering  depends,  of  course,  on  the  age  of 
the  bud  when  emasculation  takes  place.  It  is,  by  the  way, 
best  to  delay  emasculation  until  just  before  the  flowers  open, 
but  one  must  be  certain  that  the  anthers  have  not  discharged 
their  pollen  before  the  flower  has  been  emasculated. 

Emasculation  is  a  simple  operation.  The  essential  organs 
of  the  grape-flower  are  covered  by  a  small  cap ;  this  in  some 
grapes  must  be  removed  before  the  anthers  can  be  reached. 
In  many  native  grapes,  however,  the  cap  and  the  anthers  may 
be  removed  at  one  stroke  by  the  operator.  The  best  tool  for 
this  is  a  small  pair  of  forceps.  Each  of  the  blades  of  the  for- 
ceps in  working  with  native  grapes  should  have  a  sharp  cutting 
surface,  but  with  Vinifera  sorts,  where  the  cap  must  be  re- 
moved before  the  anthers  can  be  reached,  forcep  blades  with 
a  flat  surface  are  best.  There  is,  of  course,  some  danger  when 
the  buds  are  well  developed  that  the  pollen  may  be  squeezed 
out  and  so  reach  the  stigma  or  adhere  to  the  instrument  and 
thus  contaminate  future  crosses.  The  first  danger  must  be 
avoided  carefully  by  the  skill  of  the  operator,  while  the  second  is 
easily  overcome  by  sterilizing  the  forceps  in  alcohol.  An  effort 
should  be  made  to  fertilize  as  many  of  the  flowers  in  the  cluster 
as  possible,  but  success  is  not  always  certain ;  when  there  is 
doubt,  the  uncertain  flower  should  be  removed  from  the  cluster. 

The  flower  from  which  the  pollen  is  to  be  taken  must  be  pro- 
tected from  wind  and  insects;  otherwise  pollen  from  another 
flower  may  be  left  on  it.  Protection  should  be  given  by  tying 
the  flowers  in  a  bag  while  still  in  bud.  There  are  various 
ways  of  obtaining  pollen  from  ripe  anthers  and  applying  it  to 


280        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

the  stigma  of  the  flowers  to  be  crossed.  The  simpest  is  to  crush 
the  anthers,  thus  squeezing  out  the  pollen,  after  which,  with  a 
brush,  scalpel  or  other  instrument,  it  may  be  placed  upon  the 
stigma.  A  brush  is  very  wasteful  of  pollen  and  often  becomes  a 
source  of  contamination  to  future  crosses,  so  that  the  scalpel 
is  the  better  implement  of  the  two.  When  pollen  is  plentiful, 
as  will  usually  be  the  case  when  a  man  is  working  with  vines  in 
his  own  vineyard,  by  far  the  best  method  is  to  take  the  cluster 
from  the  male  vine  and  apply  the  pollen  directly  to  the  stigma 
of  the  flower  to  be  crossed,  thereby  making  certain  of  fresh 
pollen  and  an  abundance  of  it.  The  stigma,  if  pollen  suffice, 
should  be  covered  with  pollen. 

Grape  pollen  does  not  keep  well  and  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  have  it  as  fresh  as  possible.  The  work  of  pollination  is  best 
performed  in  bright,  sunny  weather  when  the  pollen  is  very 
dry.  As  may  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  statements,  tools 
and  methods  are  of  less  importance  than  care  in  doing  the  work. 
The  only  tool  absolutely  necessary  is  a  pair  of  forceps,  although 
a  hand-lens  is  often  helpful.  Bags  for  covering  the  flowers 
should  be  just  large  enough  and  no  larger.  A  bag  to  cov£r  the 
pollen-producing  flower  may  well  be  an  ordinary  manilla  bag 
sufficiently  large  to  amply  cover  the  flower-cluster.  It  is 
helpful,  however,  to  have  a  light  transparent  oiled  bag  through 
which  one  can  see  the  condition  of  the  anthers.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  bag  for  the  female  flower  be  permitted  to  remain  until 
the  fruits  ripen  as  a  protection  against  birds  and  fungi.  It 
must,  therefore,  be  of  larger  size.  While  the  bags  are  still 
flat,  a  hole  is  made  near  the  opening  through  which  a  string  is 
passed  which  can  be  tied  when  the  upper  end  of  the  bag  is 
squeezed  about  the  cluster. 

Choosing  the  parents. 

Very  much  depends  on  the  immediate  parentage  in  hybrid- 
izing grapes.  Some  varieties  when  crossed  produce  much 


GRAPE-BREEDING  281 

higher  averages  of  worthy  offspring  than  others.  There  is  so 
much  difference  in  varieties  in  this  respect  that  to  discover 
parents  so  endowed  should  be  the  first  task  of  the  grape-breeder. 
Fortunately,  considerable  work  has  been  done  by  several  ex- 
periment stations  in  breeding  grapes,  and  their  accumulated 
knowledge,  together  with  that  from  such  workers  as  Rogers, 
Ricketts,  Campbell  and  Munson,  furnishes  beginners  with 
good  starting  points.  There  is  no  way  possible  of  discovering 
what  the  best  progenitors  are  except  by  records  of  performance. 
Very  often  varieties  of  high  cultural  value  are  worthless  in 
breeding  because  their  characters  seem  not  to  be  transmitted 
to  their  progeny  and,  to  the  contrary,  a  good-for-nothing 
variety  in  the  vineyard  is  often  valuable  in  breeding. 

From  present  knowledge  it  does  not  appear  that  new  char- 
acters are  introduced  in  plants  by  hybridizing.  A  new  variety 
originating  from  hybridization  is  but  a  recombination  of  the 
characters  of  the  parents ;  the  combination  is  new  but  the 
characters  are  not.  Thus,  one  parent  of  a  hybridized  grape 
may  contribute  color,  size,  flavor  and  practically  all  the  char- 
acters of  the  fruit,  while  the  other  parent  may  contribute 
vigor,  hardiness,  resistance  to  disease  and  the  characters  of  the 
vine.  Or  these  and  other  characters  in  the  make-up  of  a  new 
grape  may  be  intermingled  in  any  mathematical  way  possible. 
The  grape-breeder  must  make  certain  that  one  or  the  other  of 
the  parents  possesses  the  particular  characters  he  desires  in 
his  new  grape. 

It  is  now  known  that  the  characters  of  the  grape,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  other  plants,  are  inherited  in  accordance 
with  certain  laws  discovered  by  MendeJ*  The  early  workers 
in  grape-breeding  did  not  know  of  these  laws  and  could 
not  take  aim  in  the  work  they  were  doing.  Consequently, 
hybridization  was  a  maze  in  which  these  breeders  often 
lost  themselves.  Mendel's  discoveries,  however,  assure  a 
regularity  of  averages  and  give  a  definiteness  and  constancy 


282        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

of  action  which  enable  the  grape-breeder  to  attain  with 
fair  certainty  what  he  wants  if  he  keeps  patiently  at  his 
task.  The  grape-breeder  should  inform  himself  as  to  what 
Mendel's  laws  are,  and  on  the  work  that  has  been  done  on 
the  inheritance  of  characters  of  the  grape.  A  technical  bul- 
letin published  by  the  State  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva, 
New  York,  and  another  from  the  North  Carolina  Station  at 
Raleigh  give  much  information  on  the  inheritance  of  char- 
acters in  certain  grapes,  and  further  information  can  be  secured 
by  applying  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  for  literature  on  the  subject. 

The  grape-breeder  can  hope  to  progress  only  by  making  many 
combinations  between  different  varieties  and  growing  large 
numbers  of  seedlings.  He  should  extend  his  work  to  all  varieties 
which  show  promise  in  the  breeding  of  grapes  for  the  particular 
purpose  he  has  in  mind.  The  seed  may  be  saved  and  planted 
as  directed  in  the  chapter  on  propagation.  Unless  he  desires 
to  make  scientific  interpretations  of  his  results,  weak  seedlings 
should  be  discarded  the  first  year,  and  a  second  discard  may  be 
made  before  the  young  plants  go  in  the  vineyard.  The  breeder 
will  soon  discover  that  he  can  tell  fairly  well  from  the  character 
of  the  seedlings  whether  they  are  of  sufficient  promise  to  keep. 
Thus,  if  the  number  of  leaves  is  small  or  if  the  leaves  themselves 
are  small,  the  vine  is  of  doubtful  value ;  if  the  internodes  are 
exceedingly  long,  the  prospect  is  poor ;  slenderness  of  cane,  if 
accentuated,  does  not  promise  well ;  on  the  other  hand,  great 
stoutness  and  very  short  internodes  are  not  desirable  indications. 
Through  these  and  other  signs,  the  breeder  will  come  quickly 
to  know  wrhich  vines  should  eventually  go  to  the  vineyard. 

RESULTS  OF  GRAPE-BREEDING 

There  are  now  2000  or  more  varieties  of  grapes  of  American 
origin,  all  produced  within  approximately  a  century.  It  is 


PLATE  XXI.  —  Jefferson  (Xf). 


GRAPE-BREEDING  283 

doubtful  whether  any  other  cultivated  plant  at  any  time  in 
the  history  of  the  world  has  attained  such  importance  in  so 
short  a  time  from  the  wild  state  as  American  grapes.  It  would 
seem  that  almost  every  possible  combination  between  species 
worth  considering  has  been  made.  Through  hybridization, 
species  and  varieties  have  become  so  mixed  that  the  grape- 
breeder  cannot  now  work  intelligently  with  these  gross  forms 
and  must  work  with  characters  rather  than  with  species  and 
varieties  which  are  but  combinations  of  characters.  Great 
progress,  it  is  true,  has  been  made  in  the  past  in  breeding  grapes 
in  America,  but  the  work  has  been  wholly  empirical  and  ex- 
tremely wasteful.  Many  varieties  have  been  called,  but  few 
have  been  chosen.  With  the  new  knowledge  of  breeding  and 
with  the  experience  of  past  workers,  progress  should  be  made 
with  greater  certainty.  From  what  has  been  done  and  from 
work  now  under  way,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  shall 
soon  be  growing  grapes  everywhere  in  America,  and  kinds  so 
diverse  that  they  will  meet  not  only  all  purposes  to  which 
grapes  are  now  put,  but  also  the  demand  for  better  grapes  made 
by  more  critical  consumers. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
MISCELLANIES 

THERE  yet  remain  several  phases  of  grape-culture  essential 
to  success,  none  of  which  quite  deserves  a  chapter  and  none  of 
which  properly  falls  into  any  of  the  foregoing  chapters.  The 
subjects  are  not  closely  related,  are  by  no  means  of  equal  im- 
portance, yet  all  are  too  important  to  be  relegated  to  the  limbo 
of  an  appendix  and  are,  therefore,  thrown  into  a  chapter  of 
miscellanies. 

CROSS-POLLINATION 

The  blooming  of  the  vine  had  little  significance  to  the  grape- 
grower,  the  blooming  period  being  so  late  that  grapes  are  sel- 
dom caught  by  frost,  until  the  discovery  was  made  that  many 
varieties  of  grapes  are  unable  to  fertilize  themselves,  and  that 
failure  of  crops  of  these  varieties  was  often  due  to  the  self- 
sterility  of  the  variety.  Until  this  discovery,  the  uncertainty 
attending  the  setting  of  the  grape  in  these  varieties  was  one  of 
the  discouragements  of  grape-growing.  Following  investiga- 
tions of  the  self-sterility  of  the  tree-fruits,  an  investigation  of 
the  grape  showed  that  the  vines  of  this  fruit  are  often  self- 
sterile.  This  knowledge  has  in  some  degree  modified  the  plant- 
ing of  all  home  collections  and  has  more  or  less  affected  the 
plantings  of  commercial  sorts. 

Varieties  of  American  grapes  showT  most  remarkable  differ- 
ences in  the  degree  of  self-fertility.  Many  sorts  fruit  per- 
fectly without  cross-pollination.  Others  set  no  fruit  whatso- 
ever if  cross-pollination  is  not  provided  for.  Most  varieties, 
however,  are  found  in  groups  between  the  twro  extremes,  neither 

284 


MISCELLANIES  285 

self-fertile  nor  self-sterile.  Figure  51  shows  staminate  and  per- 
fect clusters  on  one  vine.  Some  varieties  show  no  variation 
in  the  degree  of  self-sterility  or  self-fertility;  others  behave 
differently  in  regard  to  these  characters  under  different  envi- 
ronment. Now  and  then  the  widest  variations  are  to  be  found 
in  a  variety  in  respect  to  self-fertility. 

Following  the  lead  of  Beach  at  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  several  workers  have  made  careful  studies 


FIG.  51.     Staminate  and  perfect  clusters  on  one  vine;   right,  staminate; 
left,  perfect. 

of  the  self-fertility  of  the  grape,  and  now  the  cultivated  varieties 
of  native  grapes  are  divided  into  four  groups  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  of  self -fertility.  Class  I  includes  self-fertile 
varieties  having  perfect  or  nearly  perfect  clusters;  Class  II 
includes  self-fertile  varieties  having  clusters  loose  but  market- 
able ;  Class  III  includes  varieties  which  are  so  imperfectly  self- 
fertile  that  the  clusters  are  generally  too  loose  to  be  marketable ; 
Class  IV  includes  self-sterile  varieties.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  commonly  cultivated  grapes  classified  according  to  the 
divisions  just  given : 


286        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   GRAPES   ACCORDING   TO 
SELF-FERTILITY 

CLASS  I.     Clusters  perfect  or  varying  from  perfect  to  somewhat  loose. 


Berckmans 

Bertha 

Cottage 

Croton 

Delaware 

Diamond 

Diana 


Etta 

Janesville 

Lady  Washington 

Lutie 

Moore  Early 

Niagara 

Poughkeepsie 


Pocklington 

Prentiss 

Rochester 

Senasqua 

Winchell 

Worden 


CLASS  II.     Clusters  marketable ;   moderately  compact  or  loose. 


Agawam 

Brilliant 

Brown 

Catawba 

Champion 

Chautauqua 

Clinton 

Colerain 

Concord 


Dutchess 
Early  Victor 
Elvira 

Empire  State 
Fern  Munson 
Hartford 
lona 
Isabella 
Isabella  Seedling 


Jefferson 

Jessica 

Lady 

Mills 

Missouri  Riesling 

Perkins 

Rommel 

Triumph 

Ulster 


CLASS  III.     Clusters  unmarketable. 


Brighton 
Canada 
Dracut  Amber 
Eumelan 
Geneva 


Hayes 

Lindley 

Noah 

Northern  Muscadine 

Vergennes 


CLASS  IV.     Self-sterile.     No  fruit  develops  on  covered  clusters. 


America 

Aminia 

Barry 

Black  Eagle 

Clevener 

Creveling 

Eldorado 


Faith  (?) 

Gsertner 

Grein  Golden 

Hercules 

Jewel 

Massasoit 


Maxatawney  (?) 

Merrimac 

Montefiore 

Requa 

Salem 

Wyoming 


In  the  main,  the  cause  of  infertility,  as  with  other  fruits,  is 
the  impotency  of  pollen  on  the  pistils  of  the  same  variety. 


MISCELLANIES  287 

There  are  a  few  cases  in  which  pollen  does  not  seem  to  be  formed 
abundantly,  but  these  are  very  few.  There  are  a  few  cases, 
also,  in  which  the  pistil  does  not  become  receptive  until  after 
the  pollen  has  lost  its  vitality;  these,  however,  are  very  few. 
In  a  greater  number  of  cases  the  pollen  is  found  defective. 
However,  dismissing  all  of  these  as  the  exception,  the  rule  is 
that  self-sterility  is  due,  as  has  been  said,  to  the  lack  of  affinity 
between  pollen  and  pistils  produced  on  the  vines  of  some 
varieties. 

Nature  is  helpful  to  the  grape-grower  in  giving  a  guide  to  self- 
fertility.  The  length  of  stamens  is  a  fairly  safe  indication  of 
self-fertility.  All  grapes  which  are  self-fertile  bear  flowers 
with  long  stamens,  although  the  latter  are  not  a  sure  sign  of 
self-fertility,  as  a  few  varieties  with  long  stamens  are  self- 
sterile.  On  the  other  hand,  short  or  recurved  stamens  are 
always  associated  with  complete  or  nearly  complete  self- 
sterility. 

The  remedy  for  self-sterility  is  inter-planting.  Only  the 
varieties  named  in  Classes  I  and  II  in  the  foregoing  classifi- 
cation should  be  planted  alone.  The  sorts  named  in  Classes 
III  and  IV  must  be  planted  near  other  sorts  which  bloom 
at  the  same  time  in  order  that  their  flowers  may  be  cross- 
pollinated. 

It  is  evident  that  the  grape-grower  must  have  some  knowledge 
of  the  relative  time  that  grapes  bloom,  if  he  is  to  plant  intelli- 
gently to  secure  cross-pollination.  The  following  table,  taken 
from  Bulletin  407  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  shows  the  blooming  time  of  grapes  at  that  Station. 
Variations  due  to  location  and  season  must  be  expected,  but 
within  the  bounds  of  the  regions  in  which  these  grapes  are 
grown  variations  will  be  slight.  When  this  table  is  used  for 
other  regions  than  New  York,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  farther  south,  the  longer  the  blooming  season ;  the  farther 
north,  the  shorter  the  season. 


288        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


Blooming  dates  of  grapes. 

From  three  years'  records,  the  average  length  of  blooming 
season  for  grapes  was  twenty  days,  nineteen  days  in  1912  and 
1914  and  twenty-two  days  in  1913.  The  first  date  in  the 
average  year  of  1912  was  June  14,  while  for  1914,  it  was  June  7  : 

TABLE  IV.  —  SHOWING  BLOOMING  TIME  OF  GRAPES 


3 

K 

I 

§ 

W 

fc 

1 
§ 

1 

i_3 

1 

H 

- 
H 

8 

H 
> 

EARLY 

K 

(2 
I 

S 

1 

(J 

H 
H 
•< 

•J 

> 

- 
H 

Agawam  

* 

Diana  .... 

* 

America  

* 

Downing 

* 

August  Giant  
Bacchus  

* 

* 

Dracut  Amber.  .  .  . 
Dutchess 

* 

* 

Barry  

* 

Early  Victor 

* 

Beacon  

* 

Eaton 

* 

Bell    

# 

Eclipse 

* 

Berckmans  

* 

Eldorado  

* 

Black  Eagle  

* 

Elvira 

* 

Brighton  

* 

Empire  State 

* 

Brilliant  

* 

Etta 

* 

Brown  

* 

Eumedel    . 

* 

Campbell  Early.  .  . 

* 

Eumelan  

* 

Canada  

* 

Faith  

* 

Canandaigua  
Carman  

* 

* 

Fern  Munson  
Gaertner 

* 

* 

Catawba  

* 

Geneva 

* 

Champion  

* 

Goethe  

* 

Chautauqua  

* 

Gold  Coin  

* 

Clevener  

* 

Grein  Golden  .... 

* 

Clinton  

* 

Hartford 

* 

Colerain  

* 

Headlight 

* 

Columbian 

Helen  Keller 

* 

Imperial  

* 

Herbert  

* 

Concord  .... 

* 

Hercules 

* 

Cottage  

* 

Hicks 

* 

C  reveling  

# 

Hidalgo 

* 

Croton  

* 

Hosford 

* 

Delago  

* 

lona  

* 

Delaware 

* 

Isabella 

* 

Diamond  . 

* 

Janesville 

* 

MISCELLANIES  289 

TABLE  IV.  —  SHOWING  BLOOMING  TIME  OF  GRAPES  —  Continued 


2 

3 

w 

N 

~ 
W 
> 

EARLY 

MIDSEASON 

H 
H 

«< 
t-3 

& 

5 

&H 
« 

m 

> 

H 
J 

£ 
3 

W 

fcH 

X 

H 

EARLY 

MIDSEASON 

3 

H! 

J 

B 

H 
> 

Jefferson  

* 

Norton  

* 

Jessies, 

* 

Oporto      

* 

Jewel 

* 

Ozark    

* 

Kensington 

* 

Peabody  

* 

Kins 

* 

Perfection           .  .  . 

* 

Lady  Washington 

* 

Perkins            .    ... 

* 

Lindley 

* 

Pierce      

* 

Lucile        

* 

Pocklington  

* 

Lutie  

* 

Poughkeepsie  

* 

McPike  

* 

Prentiss  

* 

Manito 

* 

Rebecca  

* 

Martha 

* 

* 

Regal 

% 

Massasoit 

* 

Requa 

* 

M  axa  tawney 

* 

Rochester          .... 

* 

Merrimac 

* 

Rommel      

* 

Mills..           .      • 

* 

Salem    

* 

Missouri  Riesling 

# 

Secretary 

* 

Montefiore  

* 

Senasqua  

* 

Moore  Early 

* 

Stark-Star         .... 

* 

Moyer  

* 

Triumph  

* 

Nectar  

* 

Ulster    

# 

Niagara  

* 

Vergennes  

* 

Noah 

* 

Winchell 

* 

Northern 

Worden 

* 

Muscadine  .  . 

* 

\Vyoming      

* 

RINGING  GRAPE  VINES 

The  ringing  of  woody  plants  is  a  well-known  horticultural 
practice.  Three  objects  may  be  attained  by  ringing :  unpro- 
ductive plants  may  be  brought  into  bearing  by  ringing ;  the 
size  of  the  fruits  may  be  increased  and  thereby  the  plants  be 
made  more  productive ;  and  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  may  be 
hastened.  In  European  countries,  ringing  has  long  been  prac- 
ticed with  all  tree-fruits  and  the  grape,  but  in  America  the 
operation  is  recommended  only  for  the  apple  and  the  grape 


290        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

and  with  neither  fruit  is  ringing  widely  practiced.  Experiments 
carried  on  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
by  Paddock,  as  reported  in  Bulletin  151  from  this  Station,  show 
that  ringing  may  well  be  practiced  by  grape-growers  under 
some  conditions.  Since  Paddock's  experiments,  and  possibly 
to  some  extent  before,  the  grape  has  been  ringed  to  produce 
exhibition  fruits  or  a  fancy  product  for  the  market. 

Ringing  consists  in  taking  from  the  vine  a  layer  of  bark 
around  the  vine  through  the  cortex  and  bast  of  the  plant.  The 
width  of  the  wound  varies  from  that  of  a  simple  cut  made  with 
a  knife  to  a  band  of  bark  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  operation 
is  performed  during  that  period  of  growth  in  which  the  bark 
peels  most  readily  from  the  vine,  the  period  of  greatest  cam- 
bial  activity.  The  term  "ringing"  is  preferred  to  "girdling," 
a  word  sometimes  used,  since  the  latter  properly  designates  a 
wound  which  extends  into  and  usually  kills  the  plant. 

The  theory  of  ringing  is  simple.  Unassimilated  sap  passes 
from  the  roots  of  the  plant  to  the  leaves  through  the  outer 
layer  of  the  woody  cylinder.  In  the  leaves  this  raw  material 
is  acted  on  by  various  agents,  after  which  it  is  distributed  to 
the  several  organs  of  the  plant  through  vessels  in  the  inner  bark. 
When  plants  are  ringed,  the  upward  flow  of  sap  is  continued  as 
before  the  operation,  but  the  newly  made  food  compounds  can- 
not pass  beyond  the  injury,  and  therefore  the  top  of  the  plant  is 
supplied  with  an  extra  amount  of  food  at  the  expense  of  the 
parts  below  the  ring.  The  extra  food  produces  the  results 
noted. 

It  turns  out  in  practice  that  ringing  is  usually  harmful  to  the 
plant,  as  one  might  expect  from  so  unnatural  an  operation. 
Injury  to  the  plant  arises  from  the  fact  that  parts  of  the  vine 
are  starved  at  the  expense  of  other  parts ;  and  because,  when 
the  bark  is  removed,  the  outer  layers  of  the  woody  cylinder 
dry  out  very  quickly  and  thus  check  to  some  extent  the  up- 
ward flow  of  sap  through  evaporation  from  the  exposed  wood. 


MISCELLANIES  291 

Thus,  not  infrequently,  the  plant's  vitality  is  seriously  drained. 
Nevertheless,  vineyards  may  be  found  in  which  ringing  has 
been  extensively  practiced  many  seasons  in  succession  and 
which  continue  to  yield  profitable  crops,  the  growers  having 
learned  to  perform  the  work  of  ringing  so  as  to  injure  the  vines 
but  little. 

Ringing  without  harm  to  the  plant  depends  much  on  the  way 
in  which  the  vines  have  been  pruned.  For  instance,  if  the 
vines  are  pruned  to  the  two-arm  Kniffin  method,  the  ringing 
of  bark  should  be  done  from  both  arms  just  beyond  the  fifth 
bud.  Thus,  the  ten  buds  left  on  the  vine  produce  enough 
leaf  surface  to  supply  the  food  necessary  to  keep  the  vine  in 
vigorous  condition.  When  the  four-arm  Kniffin  method  is 
used,  the  two  top  arms  only  are  ringed,  and  even  so  three  or 
four  buds  must  be  left  on  each  for  renewals.  Whatever  the 
method  of  training,  it  will  be  seen  from  these  examples  that 
some  unringed  wood  must  be  left  to  the  vine  with  which  to 
supply  leafy  shoots  to  support  the  vine.  Some  growers  ring 
their  vines  only  every  other  year,  thus  giving  them  an  oppor- 
tunity to  recover  from  whatever  loss  of  vigor  they  may  have 
sustained  in  the  season  of  ringing. 

Several  other  considerations  are  important  in  ringing :  First, 
the  vines  must  not  be  permitted  to  carry  too  large  a  crop. 
Again,  the  amount  of  fruit  on  the  ringed  portion  of  the  vine 
must  depend  on  the  amount  of  leaf  surface  not  only  of  the 
plant  but  of  the  ringed  arms,  each  ringed  arm  acting  somewhat 
independently  so  far  as  its  crop  is  concerned.  If  too  many 
clusters  are  left  on  the  ringed  arms,  it  always  follows  that  the 
fruit  is  inferior  and  often  worthless.  Lastly,  all  fruit  be- 
tween the  rings  and  the  trunk  must  be  removed,  for  it  does 
not  mature  properly  and  so  adds  only  to  the  drain  on  the 
plant's  vitality. 

As  to  the  results,  it  is  certain  from  the  experiments  that  have 
been  conducted  and  from  the  experience  of  grape-growers,  that 


292        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 


the  maturity  of  the  fruit  is  hastened,  and  berries  and  bunches 
are  larger  when  the  ringing  has  been  done  intelligently.  Many 
growers  hold  that  fruit  produced  on  ringed  vines  is  never  quite 
up  to  the  mark  in  quality  and  in  firmness  of  fruit.  There 
seems  to  be  a  difference  in  opinion  about  this  falling  off  in 
quality,  however,  although  unquestionably,  choice  sorts,  as 
Delaware,  lona  and  Dutchess,  suffer  more  or  less  in  quality. 

It  is  commonly  agreed,  also, 
that  varieties,  the  fruits  of 
which  crack  badly,  as  the 
Worden,  suffer  more  from 
cracking  on  ringed  than  on 
unringed  vines. 

Experiment  and  experience 
prove  that  the  best  results  of 
ringing  are  obtained  if  the 
work  is  done  when  the  grapes 
are  about  one-third  grown. 
Of  course  the  exact  time  de- 
pends on  the  season  and  on 
1  the  variety.  The  operation 
is  variously  performed  and  is 
easily  done  with  a  sharp  knife, 
but  when  large  vineyards  are  to  be  ringed  the  grower  ought  to 
provide  himself  with  some  simple  tool.  Paddock,  in  the  bulle- 
tin previously  mentioned,  pictures  two  of  these  tools  and  these 
are  reproduced  in  Fig.  52. 

In  conclusion  it  must  be  said  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
gains  attained  by  ringing  offset  the  losses.  The  practice  is 
chiefly  of  value  only  when  exhibition  clusters  of  grapes 
are  wanted  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  hasten  the  maturity 
of  the  crop.  Always,  however,  the  work  must  be  per- 
formed with  intelligence  and  judgment  or  the  losses  will  offset 
the  gains. 


FIG.  52.  Tools  used  in 
grape-vines  are  shown  in  1  and  2  ;  while 
3  and  4  show  ringed  vines  at  the  be- 
ginning and  the  close  of  the  season. 


MISCELLANIES  293 

BAGGING  GRAPES 

In  some  localities  bagging  is  considered  an  essential  to  profit- 
able grape-growing.  The  bags  serve  to  protect  the  grapes 
against  birds.  In  some  grape  regions  vineyards  suffer  more 
from  the  depredations  of  robins  and  other  birds  than  from  all 
other  troubles.  Grapes  bearing  small  berries  and  having 
tender  pulp  and  those  which  shell  most  readily  from  the  stem 
suffer  most.  Of  standard  sorts,  Delaware  is  probably  more 
enticing  to  robins  than  any  other  variety.  There  is  only  one 
way  of  preventing  damage  to  grapes  from  birds  and  that  is  by 
bagging  the  clusters. 

Bagging  is  also  an  effective  means  of  protecting  the  grape 
from  several  fungi  and  insects.  In  home  plantations  or  small 
commercial  vineyards,  bagging  the  bunches  often  eliminates 
the  necessity  of  spraying  for  fungi  and  for  most  of  the  insects 
that  trouble  the  grape.  Because  of  the  warmth  afforded  by  the 
bags,  bagged  grapes  ripen  a  little  earlier  and  are  of  somewhat 
higher  quality  than  those  not  bagged.  Grapes  bagged  are  pro- 
tected from  early  frost,  thus  prolonging  the  season.  Grapes 
that  have  been  protected  from  the  elements  during  the  summer 
are  more  attractive  than  those  exposed  to  the  weather,  since  the 
fruits  are  free  from  weather  marks  and  present  a  fresh,  bright 
appearance,  which  puts  them  in  a  grade  above  unbagged 
grapes.  Bagging  often  enables  the  grower  to  sell  his  crop  as  a 
fancy  product. 

Grapes  are  bagged  as  soon  as  the  fruits  are  well  set,  the 
sooner  the  better  if  protection  against  fungi  is  one  of  the  pur- 
poses. Under  no  circumstances,  however,  should  the  clusters 
be  bagged  while  in  blossom.  A  patent  bag  made  for  the  pur- 
pose may  be  purchased  or,  serving  equally  well,  the  common 
one  and  one-half  and  two-pound  manila  bags  used  by  grocers 
prove  satisfactory.  One  of  the  patent  bags  which  is  known  as 
the  Ideal  Clasp  Bag  has  a  metal  clasp  attached  to  the  top  for 


294        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

securing  the  bag  in  place  over  the  cluster.  In  using  the 
grocer's  bag,  before  it  is  put  in  place  the  corners  of  both  the 
top  and  bottom  are  cut  off  by  placing  several  bags  on  a  firm 
level  surface  and  using  a  broad-shaped  chisel.  Cutting  off  the 
corners  of  the  top  enables  the  operator  to  close  the  bag  neatly 
over  the  cluster,  while  cutting  off  the  corners  of  the  bottom  fur- 
nishes a  means  of  escape  for  any  water  that  gets  in  the  bag. 
In  putting  the  bag  in  place,  the  top  is  pinned  above  the  lateral 
from  which  the  bunch  hangs,  and  must  not  be  fastened  about 
the  small  stem  of  the  cluster,  as  the  wind  blowing  the  bag  al- 
most invariably  breaks  the  cluster  from  the  vine.  The  largest 
pins  to  be  purchased  in  dry-goods  stores  are  used  in  pinning  the 
bags.  The  bags  remain  until  the  grapes  are  picked.  Wet 
weather  does  not  injure  bags  and  seemingly  they  grow  stronger 
with  exposure  to  sun  and  wind. 

The  cost  of  the  bags  and  the  work  of  putting  them  on  is  no 
small  item.  To  secure  the  best  results,  the  work  must  be  done 
at  the  period  between  the  dropping  of  the  blossoms  and  the 
formation  of  the  seeds,  when  the  grapes  are  about  the  size  of 
a  small  pea.  This  is  a  busy  time  for  the  grape-grower,  which 
adds  to  the  cost.  When  the  work  is  conducted  on  a  large 
scale,  the  cost  is  about  two  dollars  a  thousand  bags,  this  figure 
covering  both  the  cost  of  bags  and  labor.  Women  do  the  work 
more  expeditiously  than  men  and  soon  become  very  skillful  in 
putting  on  the  bags.  Despite  the  trouble  and  cost  of  bagging, 
growers  seeking  to  produce  a  fancy  product  find  that  the  ex- 
penditure proves  profitable. 

WINTER-PROTECTION  OF  GRAPES 

With  a  little  care  as  to  winter-protection,  grapes  may  be 
grown  profitably  in  northern  regions  where,  without  protection, 
the  vines  are  killed  or  injured  by  low  temperatures.  Indeed,  it  is 
little  short  of  amazing  how  well  grapes  can  be  grown  in  north- 


MISCELLANIES  295 

ern  regions  where  nature  wears  a  most  austere  countenance  in 
winter,  if  hardy  early  sorts  are  planted  in  warm  soils  and  situ- 
ations, and  the  vines  are  covered  in  the  winter.  Occasionally 
one  finds  grapes  grown  profitably  in  commercial  vineyards  in 
the  northern  states  in  regions  where  protection  must  be  given 
to  prevent  winter-killing,  the  extra  work  of  giving  protection 
being  more  than  offset  by  the  high  price  received  in  local  markets 
for  the  fruit. 

In  all  locations  in  which  winter-protection  must  be  given, 
several  other  precautions  are  helpful  or  even  necessary.  Thus, 
cultivation  must  cease  early  in  the  season,  and  a  cover-crop  be 
sown  to  help  harden  and  mature  the  vines.  The  grapes,  also, 
must  not  be  planted  in  soils  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  must  be  applied  with  care.  The  pruning  should  be 
such  as  does  not  induce  great  growth.  These  simple  precau- 
tions to  hasten  maturity  often  suffice  in  climates  where  the 
danger  of  winter-killing  is  but  slight,  but  where  danger  is 
imminent  the  vines  must  be  covered  either  by  wrapping  or  by 
laying  down.  Wrapping  with  straw  may  suffice  for  a  few 
vines,  but  when  many  vines  are  to  be  protected,  laying  them 
down  is  cheaper  and  much  more  effectual. 

By  laying  down  is  meant  that  the  vines  must  be  placed  on 
the  ground  and  there  be  protected  by  earth  and  snow  or  other 
covering.  It  is  obvious  that  to  protect  thus,  the  vines  must 
receive  special  training ;  otherwise  the  trunks  may  be  too  stiff 
for  bending.  Some  method  of  training  must  be  chosen  in 
which  renewals  may  be  made  rather  frequently  from  the  ground 
so  that  if  the  trunks  become  large,  clumsy  and  unpliable,  a  more 
manageable  trunk  can  be  trained.  If  the  provisions  for  re- 
newal are  kept  in  mind,  any  one  of  the  several  methods  of 
training  grapes  explained  in  Chapter  VIII  on  training  may  be 
used. 

Laying  down  must  be  preceded  by  pruning,  after  which  the 
arms  and  trunk  are  loosened  from  the  wires  and  bent  to  the 


296        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

ground.  Bending  is  facilitated  by  removing  a  spade  full  of 
earth  from  the  side  of  the  vine  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
vine  is  to  be  bent.  The  trunk  is  then  laid  on  the  earth  and 
sufficient  soil  placed  on  it  to  keep  it  in  place  on  the  ground.  If 
the  danger  of  winter-killing  is  great  because  of  the  tenderness 
of  the  variety  or  the  austerity  of  the  climate,  it  often  becomes 
necessary  to  cover  the  whole  plant  lightly  with  earth.  Small 
growers  often  make  use  of  coarse  manure,  straw,  corn-stalks  or 
similar  covering,  in  which  case  the  vines  are  held  on  the  ground 
by  fence-rails  or  other  timbers;  but  protecting  with  material 
that  must  be  brought  into  the  vineyard  is  expensive  and  not 
more  satisfactory  than  earth. 

The  vines  can  be  put  down  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  drop 
and  before  the  earth  begins  to  freeze.  It  is  more  important  that 
the  vines  be  taken  up  at  the  proper  time  in  the  spring.  If  un- 
covered too  early  and  cold  weather  follows,  injury  may  result 
and  more  harm  be  done  than  if  the  vines  had  not  been  covered. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  earth  is  permitted  to  remain  too  long, 
foliage  and  vine  are  tender  both  to  sunshine  and  frost.  A  grape- 
grower  in  New  York  who  has  had  much  experience  in  laying 
down  vines  in  a  vineyard  of  some  thirty  or  forty  acres  says 
that  the  work  may  be  done  at  a  cost  of  $6  an  acre  at  the 
average  wage  paid  for  farm-labor.  It  must  be  expected  in  a 
large  plantation,  no  matter  how  well  the  work  of  covering  is 
done,  that  occasionally  a  trunk  will  be  broken,  making  it  neces- 
sary to  graft  the  vine  if  a  shoot  does  not  spring  up  from  belowT 
the  break. 

RIPENING  DATES  AND  LENGTH  OF  SEASON  FOR  GRAPES 

Every  grape-grower  should  know  when  his  varieties  may 
be  expected  to  ripen  and  the  length  of  season  that  they  will 
keep.  The  commercial  fruit-grower  by  all  means  should  have 
this  information.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  he  know  only  roughly 


MISCELLANIES  297 

at  what  season  his  varieties  ripen ;  for,  to  take  the  turn  of  the 
market,  he  must  know  exactly  when  a  variety  will  ripen  and 
how  long  it  will  keep.  He  needs  this  information,  also,  that  he 
may  distribute  his  labor  better  throughout  the  picking  season. 

Unfortunately,  the  data  as  to  ripening  time  given  by  origi- 
nators and  introducers  of  varieties  are  not  always  reliable.  This 
untrustworthiness  of  data  is  readily  accounted  for  in  several 
ways :  First,  growers  do  not  generally  agree  as  to  when  grapes 
are  ripe  nor  as  to  how  long  they  are  fit  to  eat.  Again,  much 
confusion  as  to  when  varieties  ripen  and  how  long  they  will 
keep  arises  from  the  fact  that  grapes  ripen  at  different  times  in 
different  places,  and  it  is  difficult  for  the  grape-grower  in 
Maine  to  make  allowance  in  season  for  varieties,  the  time  of 
ripening  of  which  is  given  for  Maryland.  There  are  also 
other  causes  than  the  seasonal  differences  in  grape  regions  for 
variability  in  ripening  time ;  thus,  some  soils  are  warmer  and 
quicker  than  others,  and  on  these  grapes  ripen  earlier.  Appli- 
cation of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  may  delay  the  period  of  ripen- 
ing somewhat.  Grapes  ripen  perceptibly  earlier  on  old  plants 
than  on  young  ones.  Lastly,  every  vineyard  in  a  particular 
region  has  its  own  particular  climate  caused  by  the  lay  of  land, 
nearness  to  water,  air  currents  and  altitude  which  cause  small 
differences  in  ripening. 

The  following  table  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  408  of  the  New 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  gives  the  ripening  dates 
of  grapes  at  Geneva,  New  York.  It  is  necessary  that  the  reader 
know  something  about  the  conditions  affecting  the  ripening  time 
at  Geneva.  The  latitude  is  42°  50'  46".  The  altitude  is  525 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  vineyard  lie^  a  mile  west  of  a  rela- 
tively large  body  of  water.  The  soil  is  a  cold  heavy  clay  which 
must  delay  ripening  time  somewhat.  The  land  is  level.  The 
data  are  given  as  an  average  for  three  seasons,  1913-1915. 

The  figures  given  for  "weeks  in  common  storage"  cover  a 
variable  number  of  years,  but  for  all  varieties  three  or  more 


298        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 


years.  The  grapes,  after  being  picked,  were  at  once  placed  in 
common  storage  in  a  room  on  the  second  floor  of  a  building. 
There  conditions  were  not  ideal,  and  no  doubt  the  season  of 
storage  would  have  been  prolonged  somewhat  had  the  fruit 
been  kept  in  a  better  storage-room. 

TABLE  V.  —  SHOWING  THE  RIPENING  TIME  OF  GRAPES 


WEEKS  IN 
COMMON 
STORAGE 

VERY  EARLY 

(H 
J 

- 

w 

fe 
• 

§ 
3 

H 

H 

<! 

^ 

1 

3 

SM 
tf 

H 
> 

WEEKS  IN 
COMMON 
STORAGE 

VERY  EARLY  | 

I 

JM 
J 

H 

H 

MIDSEASON 

| 

a 

H 
^ 

H 

M 
H 
> 

Aga  warn  .  .  . 

* 

Diana  

17 

* 

America.  .  . 
Barry 

28 

* 

* 

Downing.  .  . 
Dracut 

* 

Beacon  .... 

7 

* 

Amber.  .  . 

9 

* 

Bell 

8 

* 

Dutchess  .  . 

23 

* 

Berckmans 

21 

* 

Early  Ohio. 

* 

Black  Eagle 
Brighton.  .  . 
Brilliant  .  .  . 

18 
20 
11 

* 
* 
* 

Early 
Victor.  .  . 
Eaton  

11 
6 

* 

* 

Brown  

6 

* 

Eclipse  .... 

7 

* 

Campbell 
Early  

12 

* 

Eldorado  .  . 
Elvira  

17 

18 

* 

* 

Canada.  .  .  . 
Canandai- 
gua  

17 
20 

* 
* 

Empire 
State  .  .  . 
Etta    

24 
15 

* 

* 

Carman.  .  .  . 

17 

* 

Eumelan.  .  . 

17 

* 

Catawba 

21 

* 

Faith 

11 

* 

Champion  . 

6 

* 

Fern 

Chautau- 

Munson  . 

11 

* 

Qua  . 

10 

* 

Gaertner 

17 

* 

Clevener.  .  . 
Clinton.  .  .  . 
Colerain  .  .  . 
Columbian 
Imperial  . 

13 
21 

8 

7 

* 

* 
* 

* 

Geneva  
Goethe  .... 
Gold  Coin.  . 
Grein 
Golden  .  . 

22 

18 
10 

12 

* 

* 
* 

* 

Concord 

8 

* 

Hartford.  .  . 

8 

* 

Cottage.  .  .  . 
Creveling.  . 
Croton 

5 
16 
03 

* 

* 
* 

Headlight.  . 
Helen 
Keller 

8 
26 

* 

* 

Delago  
Delaware  .  . 
Diamond 

25 
15 
10 

* 
* 

* 

Herbert.  .  .  . 
Hercules.  .  . 
Hicks 

27 
13 
10 

* 
* 

* 

PH 


MISCELLANIES 


299 


TABLE  V.  —  SHOWING  THE  RIPENING  TIME  OF  GRAPES  —  Continued 


WEEKS  IN 
COMMON 
STORAGE 

VERY  EARLY 

EARLY 

| 
§ 

H 

H 

4 
*—  : 

I 

h-1 

6 

w 

WEEKS  IN 
COMMON 
STORAGE 

PH 
4 

w 

1 

EARLY 

MIDSEASON 

E 

& 

1 

3 

H 

V 
H 
> 

Hidalgo  .... 
Hosford.  .  .  . 

12 

6 

* 

* 

Noah  
Northern 

10 

* 

lona  
Isabella 

13 
11 

* 

* 

Musca- 
dine 

9 

* 

Janesville.  . 
Jefferson.  .  . 

13 
18 

* 

* 

Norton.  .  .  . 
Oporto 

7 
12 

* 

* 

Jessica  
Jewel  

12 
12 

* 
* 

Ozark  
Peabody  .  .  . 

11 

* 
* 

Kensington 

19 

* 

Perfection  . 

8 

* 

King  

* 

Perkins.  .  .  . 

* 

Lady  Wash- 

Pierce .  . 

12 

* 

ington  .  .  . 

16 

* 

Pocklington 

* 

Lindley.  .  .  . 
Lucile  
Lutie  

27 
9 
4 

* 

# 
* 

Pough- 
keepsie  .  . 
Prentiss 

15 

16 

* 

* 

McPike..  .  . 
Manito  .... 
Martha.  .  .  . 
Massasoit.  . 
Maxa- 

7 
7 
10 
16 

* 

* 
* 

* 

Rebecca.  .  . 
Regal  
Requa  
Rochester.  . 
Rommel  .  .  . 

18 
16 
30 
7 
10 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

tawney  .  . 

12 

* 

Salem  

27 

* 

Merrimac 
Mills  
Missouri 
Riesling  . 

31 
29 

6 

* 

* 
* 

Secretary  .  . 
Senasqua  .  . 
Stark-Star  . 
Triumph 

25 
13 
10 
15 

* 
* 

* 
* 

Montefiore  . 
Moore 

9 

* 

Ulster  
Vergennes  . 

21 

28 

* 
* 

Early  

6 

* 

Wilder 

11 

* 

Moyer  

9 

* 

Winchell  .  . 

6 

* 

Nectar  
Niagara.  .  .  . 

10 
10 

* 
* 

Worden.  .  .  . 
Wyoming 

6 
9 

* 
* 

CHAPTER  XVII 
GRAPE   BOTANY 

THE  grape-grower  must  know  the  gross  structure  and  the 
habits  of  growth  of  the  plants  properly  to  propagate,  trans- 
plant, prune  and  otherwise  care  for  the  grape.  Certainly  he 
must  have  knowledge  of  the  several  species  from  which  varieties 
come  if  he  is  to  know  the  kinds  of  grapes,  understand  their 
adaptations  to  soils  and  climates,  their  relation  to  insects  and 
fungi,  and  their  value  for  table,  wine,  grape-juice  and  other 
purposes.  Fortunately,  the  botany  of  the  grape  is  compara- 
tively simple.  The  organs  of  vine  and  fruit  are  distinctive 
and  easily  discerned  and  there  are  no  nearly  related  plants  cul- 
tivated for  fruit  with  which  the  grape  can  possibly  be  con- 
fused. Botanists,  it  is  true,  have  dug  pitfalls  for  those  who 
seek  exact  knowledge  as  to  the  names  and  characters  of  the 
many  species,  but,  fortunately,  each  of  the  cultivated  species 
constitutes  a  natural  group  so  distinct  that  the  grape-grower 
can  hardly  mistake  one  for  another  in  either  fruit  or  vine. 

PLANT  CHARACTERS  AND  GROWTH  HABITS  OF  THE 
GRAPE 

A 'grape  plant  is  a  complex  organism  with  its  many  separate 
parts  especially  developed  to  do  one  or  a  few  kinds  of  work. 
The  part  of  a  plant  devoted  to  one  or  a  group  of  functions  is 
called  an  organ.  The  chief  organs  of  the  plant  are  the  root, 
stem,  bud,  flower,  leaf,  fruit  and  seed.  Flowers  and  leaves,  it 
is  true,  develop  from  buds  and  the  seeds  are  parts  of  the  fruits, 

300 


GRAPE   BOTANY  301 

but  for  descriptive  purposes  the  vine  may  well  be  divided  into 
the  parts  named.  These  chief  organs  are  further  divided  as 
follows : 

The  root. 

Root-crown :  The  region  of  the  plant  in  which  root  and  stem  unite. 

Tap-root :  The  prolongation  of  the  stem  plunging  vertically  down- 
ward. 

Rootlets  :  The  ultimate  divisions  of  the  root ;  usually  of  one  season's 
growth. 

Root-tips :  The  extreme  ends  of  the  rootlets. 

The  roots  of  some  species  of  the  grape  are  soft  and  succulent 
as  those  of  V.  vinifera,  while  the  same  organs  in  other  species, 
as  in  most  American  grapes,  are  hard  and  fibrous.  They  may 
also  be  few  or  numerous,  deep  or  shallow,  spreading  or  restricted, 
fibrous  or  non-fibrous.  The  structure  of  the  root  thus  becomes 
important  in  distinguishing  species. 

The  stem. 

Stem  or  trunk:  The  unbranched  main  axis  of  the  plant  above 
ground. 

Branches  or  arms:  Main  divisions  of  the  trunk. 

Head  :  The  region  from  which  branches  arise. 

Old  wood :  Parts  of  the  vine  older  than  one  year. 

Canes:    Wood  of  the  current  season. 

Spurs :  Short  pieces  of  the  bases  of  canes ;  usually  one  or  two  nodes 
with  a  bud  each. 

Renewal  spurs :   Spurs  left  to  bear  canes  the  following  year. 

Shoots :  Newly  developed  succulent  stems  with  their  leaves. 

Fruit-shoots :   Flower  and  fruit-bearing  shoots. 

Wood-shoots :   Shoots  which  bear  leaves  only. 

Laterals :   Secondary  shoots  arising  from  main  shoots. 

Water  sprouts :  Shoots  arising  from  adventitious  buds. 

Suckers :   Shoots  arising  from  below  ground..* 

Nodes :  Joints  in  the  stem  from  which  leaves  are  or  may  be  borne. 

Internodes :   The  part  between  two  nodes. 

Diaphragm :  The  woody  tissue  which  interrupts  the  pith  at  the  node. 

Bloom :  The  powdery  coating  on  the  cane. 

Tendril:  The  coiled,  thread-like  organ  by  which  the  vine  grasps  an 
object  and  clings  to  it. 


302        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Species  of  grapes  have  very  characteristic  vines.  A  glance 
at  a  vine  enables  one  to  tell  the  European  grape  from  any  of 
the  American  grapes ;  so,  also,  one  is  able  to  distinguish  most  of 
the  American  species  by  the  aspect  of  the  vine.  Many  varieties 
of  any  species  of  grape  are  readily  told  by  the  size  and  habits 
of  the  plant.  Size  of  vine  is  rather  more  variable  than  other 
gross  characters  because  of  the  influence  of  environment,  such 
as  food,  moisture,  light,  isolation  and  pests ;  yet,  size  in  a 
plant  or  the  parts  of  a  plant  is  a  very  reliable  character  when 
proper  allowances  are  made  for  environment. 

The  degree  of  hardiness  is  a  very  important  diagnostic  char- 
acter in  determining  both  species  and  varieties  of  grapes  and 
very  largely  indicates  their  value  for  the  vineyard.  Thus,  the 
varieties  of  the  European  grape  are  less  hardy  than  the  peach, 
while  our  American  Labruscas  and  Vulpinas  are  as  hardy  as 
the  apple.  The  range  of  varieties  as  to  hardiness  falls  within 
that  of  the  species,  and  cultivated  varieties  hardier  than  the 
wild  grape  are  not  found.  Grapes  are  designated  in  descrip- 
tions of  varieties  and  species  as  hardy,  half-hardy  and  tender. 

Habit  of  growth  varies  but  little  with  changing  conditions 
and  is  thus  an  important  means  of  distinguishing  species  and 
varieties  and  not  infrequently  stamps  the  variety  as  fit  or  unfit 
for  the  vineyard.  Habit  of  growth  gives  aspect  to  the  vine. 
Thus,  a  vine  may  be  upright,  drooping,  horizontal,  stocky, 
straggling,  spreading,  dense  or  open.  The  vine  may  grow 
rapidly  or  slowly  and  may  be  long-lived  or  short-lived;  the 
trunk  may  be  short  and  stocky  or  long  and  slender.  These 
several  characters  largely  determine  whether  a  vine  is  man- 
ageable in  the  vineyard.  Productiveness,  age  of  bearing  and 
regularity  of  bearing  are  distinctive  characters  with  cultivated 
grapes.  The  care  given  the  vine  influences  these  characters; 
yet  all  are  helpful  in  identifying  species  and  varieties  and  all 
must  be  considered  by  the  grape-grower. 

Immunity   and   susceptibility   to   diseases   and   insects   are 


GRAPE   BOTANY  303 

most  valuable  diagnostic  characters  of  species  and  varieties  of 
grapes.  Thus,  species  differ  widely  in  resistance  to  phylloxera, 
the  grape-louse,  to  the  grape  leaf-hopper,  the  flea-beetle, 
berry-moth,  root-worm,  powdery-mildew,  downy-mildew,  an- 
thracnose  and  other  insect  and  fungous  troubles  of  this  fruit. 

The  structure  of  the  bark  is  an  important  distinguishing 
character  for  some  species,  but  is  of  little  importance  in 
identifying  the  variety  and  has  no  economic  value  to  the 
fruit-grower.  In  most  species  of  grapes,  the  bark  has  distinct 
lenticels  and  on  the  old  wood  separates  in  long  thin  strips 
and  fibers;  but  in  two  species  from  southeastern  North 
America,  the  bark  bears  prominent  lenticels  and  never  shreds. 
Smoothness,  color  and  thickness  are  other  attributes  of  the 
bark  to  be  noted. 

Canes  of  different  species  vary  greatly  in  total  length  and 
in  length  of  internodes.  They  vary  also  in  size,  in  number 
and  in  color,  while  the  shape  in  some  species  is  quite  distinctive, 
being  in  some  round,  in  others  angular  and  in  still  others  flat- 
tened. The  direction  of  growth  in  canes,  whether  sinuous, 
straight  or  zigzag,  is  an  important  character.  Nodes  and 
internodes  are  indicative  characters  in  some  species,  being 
more  or  less  prominent,  angular  or  flattened,  while  the  inter- 
nodes are  long  or  short. 

The  diaphragm  distinguishes  several  species  of  grapes.  The 
cane  contains  a  large  pith  and  this  in  most  species  is  in- 
terrupted by  woody  tissue,  forming  a  diaphragm  at  the  nodes. 
In  the  Rotundifolia  grapes  the  diaphragm  is  absent,  while  in 
several  other  American  species  it  is  very  thin  and  in  still 
others  quite  thick.  The  character  of  the  diaphragm  is  best 
observed  in  year-old  canes.  In  studying  the  diaphragm, 
notice  should  be  taken  also  of  the  pith,  which  is  very  variable 
in  size. 

Young  shoots  of  the  grape  offer  a  ready  means  of  distinguish- 
ing species  and  varieties  through  their  color  and  the  amount 


304        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

and  character  of  the  pubescence.  Shoots  may  be  glabrous, 
pubescent  or  hairy  and  even  spiny. 

The  tendril  is  one  of  the  organs  most  used  in  determining 
species  and  varieties  of  grapes.  In  some  species,  as  F.  Labrusca, 
there  is  a  tendril  or  an  inflorescence  opposite  nearly  every  leaf, 
continuous  tendrils.  All  other  species  have  two  leaves  with  a 
tendril  opposite  each  and  a  third  leaf  without  a  tendril,  inter- 
mittent tendrils.  To  study  this  organ  it  is  necessary  to  have 
vigorous,  healthy,  typical  canes.  Tendrils  may  be  long  or 
short,  stout  or  slender ;  simple,  bifurcated  or  trifurcated ;  or 
smooth,  pubescent  or  warty. 

The  number  of  inflorescences  borne  by  species  is  an  impor- 
tant character  in  some  cases.  All  species,  excepting  F.  Labrusca, 
average  two  inflorescences  to  a  cane,  but  F.  Labrusca  may 
bear  from  three  to  six  inflorescences,  each  in  the  place  of  a 
tendril  opposite  the  leaf. 

The  bud. 

Bud:  An  undeveloped  shoot. 

Fruit-bud:  A  bud  in  which  a  shoot  bearing  flowers  originates. 
Wood-bud:  A  bud  in  which  a  shoot  bearing  only  leaves  originates. 
Latent  bud:  A  bud  which  remains  dormant  for  one  or  more  seasons. 
Adventitious  bud:  A  bud  arising  elsewhere  than  the  normal  position 
at  a  node. 

Eye:  A  compound  bud. 

Main  bud:   The  central  bud  of  an  eye. 

Secondary  bud:   The  lateral  bud  of  an  eye. 

Buds  of  different  species  of  grapes  vary  greatly  in  time  of 
opening  as  they  do  somewhat  in  varieties,  so  that  the  time  the 
buds  begin  to  swell  is  a  fine  mark  of  distinction.  The  angle  at 
which  the  bud  stands  out  from  the  branch  is  of  some  value  in 
determining  species.  Differences  in  color,  size,  shape,  position 
and  amount  of  pubescence  of  buds  must  all  be  noted  in  describ- 
ing grapes.  The  scales  of  the  buds  vary  more  or  less  in  size 
and  in  thickness. 


OR  APE  BOTANY 


305 


The  flower. 

Staminate:  Having  stamens  and  not  pistils;  a  male  flower. 

Pistillate:  Having  pistils  and  not  stamens ;   a  female  flower. 

Dioecious :  Said  when  the  stamens  are  on  one  plant  and  the  pistils  on 
another. 

Polygamous:  Said  when  flowers  on  a  plant  are  in  part  perfect 
(having  both  stamens  and  pistils)  while  others  are  staminate  or  pistillate. 

Hermaphrodite:  Said  of  a  flower  having  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

Fertile :  Said  of  a  flower  capable  of  bearing  seed  without  pollen  from 
another  flower. 

Sterile :  Said  of  a  flower  without  or  with  abortive  pistils. 

Perfect:  Said  of  a  flower  having  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

Imperfect :  Said  of  a  flower  wanting  either  stamens  or  pistils. 

Peduncle:  The  stalk  of  a  flower-cluster. 

Pedicel :  The  stalk  of  each  particular  flower. 

The  time  of  bloom  is  an  easy  mark  of  distinction  between 
several  species  of  grapes  and  helps  to  distinguish  varieties  in  a 
species  as  well..  Most  species  of  grapes  bear  fertile  flowers  on 
one  vine  and  sterile  flowers  on  another 
and  are,  therefore,  polygamous-dioecious. 
Sterile  vines  bear  male  flowers  with  abortive 
pistils  so  that,  while  they  never  produce 
fruits  themselves,  they  usually  assist  in 
fertilizing  others.  Fertile  flowers  are  capa- 
ble of  ripening  fruits  without  cross-pollina- 
tion. Vines  with  female  flowers  only  are 
seldom  found.  In  most  species  of  the 
grape,  plants  with  sterile  flowers  and  those 
with  complete  flowers  are  found  mixed  in 
the  wild  state,  but  usually  only  the  fertile 
plants  have  been  selected  for  cultivation. 
Plants  raised  from  seeds  of  any  of  the  spej* 
cies,  however,  furnish  many  sterile  vines. 

The  degree  of  fertility  of  blossoms  is  also  a  fine  mark  of  dis- 
tinction in  species  and  varieties  of  the  grape.  Fertile  vines  are 
of  two  kinds  in  most  species.  The  flowers  on  one  kind  are  per- 


FIG.  53.  The  grape 
flower.  I.  Opening  bud 
showing  the  way  in 
which  the  cap  becomes 
loosened  at  the  base. 
II.  Diagrammatic  illus- 
tration of  grape  stamens. 


306 


MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 


feet  hermaphrodites,  while  in  the  other  kind  the  stamens  are 
smaller  and  shorter  than  the  pistil  and  eventually  bent  down 
and  curved  under.  The  two  kinds  of  stamens  are  shown  in 
Figs.  53  and  54.  These  may  be  called  imperfect  hermaphro- 
dites since  they  are  seldom  as  fruitful  as  the  perfect  hermaph- 
rodites unless  fertilized  from  another  plant.  Examined  with 


FIG.  54. 


Grape  flowers.     Left,  upright  stamens  of  Delaware  ;   right,  de- 
pressed stamens  of  Brighton. 


a  microscope,  it  is  found  that  self-sterile  plants  usually  bear 
abortive  pollen  and  that  the  percentage  of  abortive  pollen 
grains  varies  greatly  in  different  varieties.  The  upright  or 
depressed  stamen  does  not  always  indicate  the  condition  of  the 
pollen,  since  there  are  many  instances  in  which  upright  stamens 
bear  impotent  pollen  and  occasionally  the  depressed  stamens 
bear  perfect  pollen. 

The  leaf. 

Blade :  The  expanded  portion  of  the  leaf. 

Lobe :  The  more  or  less  rounded  division  of  the  leaf. 

Sinus :  The  recess  or  bay  between  two  lobes. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  307 

Petiole :   The  leaf -stalk. 

Petiolar  sinus :   The  sinus  about  the  petiole. 

Basal  sinuses :   The  two  sinuses  toward  the  base  of  the  blade. 

Lateral  sinuses :   The  two  sinuses  toward  the  apex  of  the  blade. 

The  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  leaves  are  quite  distinctive 
of  species  and  more  or  less  so  of  varieties,  if  allowances  are 
made  for  variation  due  to  environment.  The  lobing  of  leaves 
is  a  very  uniform  character  in  most  species,  some  having  lobes 
and  others  having  entire  leaves.  The  upper  surface  of  the  leaf 
in  some  species  is  smooth,  glossy  and  shiny  and  in  others  is 
rough  and  dull.  The  lower  surface  shows  similar  variations 
and  has,  besides,  varying  amounts  of  pubescence,  down  and 
bloom.  In  some  species  the  down  resembles  cobwebs.  The 
number,  size  and  shape  of  the  lobes  are  important  in  distinguish- 
ing both  varieties  and  species,  as  are  also  the  petiolar,  basal  and 
lateral  sinuses.  As  in  most  plants,  the  margins  of  the  leaves, 
whether  serrate,  dentate  or  crenate,  are  often  distinguishing  char- 
acters. The  petiole  in  different  species  varies  from  short  to 
long  and  from  stout  to  slender.  Lastly,  the  time  at  which  the 
leaves  fall  is  often  a  gox>d  distinguishing  mark. 

The  fruit. 

Peduncle  and  pedicel:   Denned  as  in  flower. 
Brush :   The  end  of  the  pedicel  projecting  into  the  fruit 
Base :   The  point  of  attachment  of  bunch  or  berry. 
A  pex :   The  point  opposite  the  base. 
Bloom :   The  powdery  coating  on  the  fruit. 
Pigment:   The  coloring  matter  in  the  skin. 

Quality :  The  combination  of  characters  that  makes  grapes  pleasant 
to  the  palate,  sight,  smell  and  touch. 

Foxiness:    The  rancid  taste  and  smell  of  some  grapes  which  are 

similar  to  the  effluvium  of  a  fox. 

* 

Of  all  organs  the  fruit  is  most  responsive  to  changed  condi- 
tions and  hence  most  variable.  Yet  the  fruits  furnish  most 
valuable  characters  for  determining  both  species  and  varieties. 
Size,  shape,  compactness  and  the  number  of  clusters  on  a  shoot 


308        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

must  be  noted.  Coming  to  the  berry,  size,  shape,  color,  bloom, 
adherence  of  stigma  to  the  apex  and  adhesion  of  fruit  to  the 
pedicel  are  all  of  value.  Difference  in  adherence  of  the  skin  to 
the  pulp  separates  European  from  all  American  grapes.  The 
thickness,  toughness,  flavor  and  pigment  of  the  skin  have  more 
or  less  value.  The  color,  firmness,  juiciness,  aroma  and  flavor 
of  the  flesh,  as  well  as  its  adherence  to  seed  and  skin,  are  val- 
uable marks  in  describing  grapes.  All  species  and  varieties  are 
well  distinguished  by  the  time  of  ripening  and  by  keeping 
quality.  The  color  of  the  juice  is  a  plain  and  certain  dividing 
line  between  some  species  and  many  varieties. 

The  seed. 

Beak:   The  narrow  prolonged  base  of  the  seed. 
Hilum :  The  scar  left  where  the  seed  was  attached  to  the  seed-stalk. 
Chalaza:   The  place  where  the  seed-coats  and  kernel  are  connected. 
Raphe :  The  line  or  ridge  which  runs  from  the  hilum  to  the  chalaza. 

Seeds  are  accounted  of  much  value  in  determining  species. 
The  size  and  weight  of  seed  differ  greatly  in  different  species, 
as  they  do  also  in  varieties  of  any  one  species.  Thus,  of  native 
grapes,  Labrusca  has  the  largest  and  heaviest  seeds  and  Vul- 
pina  has  the  smallest  seed,  while  those  of  ^Estivalis  are  of 
medium  size  and  weight.  The  shape  and  color  of  seed  offer 
distinguishing  marks,  while  the  size,  shape  and  position  of  the 
raphe  and  chalaza  furnish  very  certain  marks  of  distinction  in 
some  species. 

THE  GENUS  VITIS 

The  genus  Vitis  belongs  to  the  vine  family  (Vitacese)  in  which 
most  botanists  also  put  the  wood-vines  (Ampelopsis),  of  which 
Virginia  creeper  is  the  best-known  plant.  The  genus  Cissus, 
to  which  belong  many  southern  climbers,  is  combined  with 
Vitis  by  some  botanists.  Vitis  is  separated  from  Ampelopsis 
and  Cissus  by  marked  differences  in  several  organs,  of  which, 


GRAPE   BOTANY  309 

horticulturally  at  least,  those  in  the  fruit  best  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish the  group.  Species  of  Vitis,  with  possibly  one  or  two 
exceptions,  bear  pulpy  edible  fruits ;  species  of  Ampelopsis  and 
Cissus  bear  fruits  with  pulp  so  scant  that  the  berries  are  in- 
edible. Vitis  is  further  distinguished  as  follows :  The  plants 
are  climbing  or  trailing,  rarely  shrubby,  with  woody  stems  and 
mostly  with  coiling,  naked-tipped  tendrils.  The  leaves  are 
simple,  palmately  lobed,  round-dentate  or  heart-shaped-den- 
tate. The  stipules  are  small,  falling  early.  The  flowers  are 
polygamo-dioecious  (some  plants  with  perfect  flowers,  others 
staminate  with  at  most  a  rudimentary  ovary),  five-parted. 
The  petals  are  separated  only  at  the  base  and  fall  off  without 
expanding.  The  disk  is  hypogynous  with  five  nectariferous 
glands  which  are  alternate  with  the  stamens.  The  berry  is 
globose  or  ovoid,  few-seeded  and  pulpy.  The  seeds  are  pyri- 
form  and  beak-like  at  the  base. 


SPECIES  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPES 

The  number  of  species  of  grapes  in  the  world  depends  on  the 
arbitrary  limits  set  for  a  species  of  this  fruit,  and  knowledge  of  the 
genus  is  yet  too  meager  to  set  these  limits  with  certainty.  In- 
deed, the  men  who  have  made  grape  species  have  seldom  been 
able  to  outline  the  habitats  of  their  groups  with  much  cer- 
tainty. In  habitat,  it  should  be  said,  grapes  are  confined 
almost  wholly  to  temperate  and  subtropical  regions.  How- 
ever, the  grape-grower  is  not  much  concerned  with  species 
of  grapes  other  than  those  that  have  horticultural  value.  Of 
these,  in  America,  there  are  now  ten  more  or  less  cultivated 
either  for  fruit  or  for  stocks.  The  following  descriptions  of 
these  ten  species  are  adapted  from  the  author's  The  Grapes 
of  New  York,  published  in  1908  by  the  state  of  New  York 
(Chapter  IV,  pages  107-156). 


310        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

CONSPECTUS    OF   CULTIVATED    SPECIES   OF   VITIS 

A.  Skin  of  mature  berry  separating  freely  from  the  pulp. 
B.  Nodes  without  diaphragms  ;  tendrils  simple. 

1.  V.    roiundifolia. 

2.  V.  Munsoniana. 
BB.  Nodes  with  diaphragms ;    tendrils  forked. 

C.  Leaves  and  shoots  glabrous  at  maturity  and  without 
bloom ;   tendrils  intermittent. 

D.  Leaves  thin,  light,  bright  green,  generally  glabrous 
below  at  maturity  except  perhaps  in  the  axils 
of  the  veins  with  a  long  or  at  least  a  prominent 
point  and  usually  long  and  sharp  teeth  or  the 
edge  even- jagged. 

E.  Leaves  broader  than  long ;    petiolar  sinus 
usually  wide  and  shallow. 

3.  V.  rupestris. 
EE.  Leaves   ovate  in  outline;    petiolar  sinus 

usually  medium  to  narrow. 

4.  V.  vulpina. 
DD.  Leaves  thick,  dull  colored  or  grayish-green,  often 

holding  some  close,  dull  pubescence  below  at 
maturity,  shoots  and  leaves  nearly  always 
more  or  less  pubescent  when  young ;  the 

teeth  mostly  short 5.    V.  cordifolia. 

6.   V.  Berlandieri. 
CC.  Leaves  rusty  or  white  tomentose   or   glaucous   blue 

below,  thick  or  at  least  firm. 
D.  Leaves     flocculent     or     cobwebby     or     glaucous 

below  when  fully  grown 7.    V.  cestivalis. 

8.    V.  bicolor. 

DD.  Leaves  densely  tomentose  or  felt-like  beneath 
throughout  the  season ;  covering  white  or 
rusty  white. 

E.  Tendrils  intermittent 9.    V.  candicans. 

EE.  Tendrils  mostly  continuous. 

10.  V.   Labrusca. 
A  A.  Skin  and  pulp  of  mature  berry  cohering.     (Old  World.) 

11.  V.  vinifera. 

1.  Vitis  rotundifolia,  Michx.  Muscadine  Grape.  Bull  Grape. 
Bullet  Grape.  Bushy  Grape.  Bullace  Grape.  Scuppernong. 
Southern  Fox  Grape. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  sometimes,  when  without  support,  shrubby 
and  only  three  or  four  feet  high  ;  when  growing  in  the  shade  often  send- 


GRAPE  BOTANY  311 

ing  down  aerial  roots.  Wood  hard,  bark  smooth,  not  scaling,  with 
prominent  warty  lenticels ;  shoots  short-jointed,  angled,  with  fine 
scurfy  pubescence  ;  diaphragms  absent ;  tendrils  intermittent,  simple. 
Leaves  small,  broadly  cordate  or  roundish ;  petiolar  sinus  wide, 
shallow ;  margin  with  obtuse,  wide  teeth ;  not  lobed  ;  dense  in  texture, 
light  green  color,  glabrous  above,  sometimes  pubescent  along  veins 
below.  Cluster  small  (6-24  berries),  loose;  peduncle  short;  pedicels 
short,  thick.  Berries  large,  globular  or  somewhat  oblate,  black  or 
greenish-yellow ;  skin  thick,  tough  and  with  a  musky  odor ;  pulp 
tough ;  ripening  unevenly  and  dropping  as  soon  as  ripe.  Seeds 
flattened,  shallowly  and  broadly  notched ;  beak  very  short ;  chalaza 
narrow,  slightly  depressed  with  radiating  ridges  and  furrows ;  raphe  a 
narrow  groove.  Leafing,  flowering  and  ripening  fruit  very  late. 

The  habitat  of  this  species  is  southern  Delaware,  west  through 
Tennessee,  southern  Illinois,  southeastern  Missouri,  Arkansas 
(except  the  northwestern  portions),  to  Grayson  County,  Texas, 
as  a  northern  and  western  boundary,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
the  Gulf  on  the  east  and  south.  It  becomes  rare  as  one  ap- 
proaches the  western  limit  but  is  common  in  many  sections  of 
the  great  region  outlined  above,  being  most  abundant  on  sandy, 
well-drained  bottom  lands  and  along  river  banks  and  in  swampy, 
thick  woodlands  and  thickets.  The  climate  most  suitable  for 
Rotundifolia  is  that  in  which  cotton  grows,  and  it  thrives  best 
in  the  lower  portions  of  the  cotton-belt  of  the  United  States. 

The  fruit  of  Rotundifolia  is  very  characteristic.  The  skin 
is  thick,  has  a  leathery  appearance,  adheres  strongly  to  the 
underlying  flesh  and  is  marked  with  lenticel-like  russet  dots. 
The  flesh  is  more  or  less  tough  but  the  toughness  is  not  localized 
around  the  seed  as  in  the  case  of  Labrusca.  The  fruit  and 
most  of  the  varieties  of  the  species  are  characterized  by  a  strong, 
musky  aroma  and  are  lacking  in  sugar  and  acid.  Some  varieties 
yield  over  four  gallons  of  must  to  the,* bushel.  Wine-makers 
are  divided  in  opinion  as  to  its  value  for  wine-making,  but  at 
present  the  most  promising  outlook  for  Rotundifolia  varieties 
is  as  wine,  grape-juice  and  culinary  grapes.  Rotundifolia  does 
not  produce  fruit  suitable  for  shipping  as  dessert  grapes  chiefly 
because  the  berries  ripen  unevenly  and  when  ripe  drop  from  the 


312        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

cluster.  The  common  method  of  gathering  the  fruit  of  this 
species  is  to  shake  the  vines  at  intervals  so  that  the  ripe  berries 
drop  on  sheets  spread  below  the  vines.  The  juice  which  ex- 
udes from  the  point  where  the  stem  is  broken  off  causes  the 
berries  to  become  smeared  and  gives  them  an  unattractive 
appearance.  Owing,  however,  to  the  tough  skin,  the  berries 
do  not  crack  as  badly  as  other  grapes  would  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, but  nevertheless  they  are  not  adapted  to  long-dis- 
tance shipments.  Under  reasonably  favorable  conditions,  the 
vines  attain  great  age  and  size  and  when  grown  on  arbors,  as 
they  often  are,  and  without  pruning,  they  cover  a  large  area. 
Rotundifolia  is  remarkably  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  all 
insects  and  to  fungal  diseases.  The  phylloxera  do  not  attack 
its  roots  and  it  is  considered  as  resistant  as  any  other,  if  not 
the  most  resistant  of  all  American  species.  The  vines  are 
grown  from  cuttings  only  with  difficulty  and  this  prevents  the 
use  of  this  species  as  a  resistant  stock.  However,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  and  with  skillful  handling,  this  is  a 
successful  method  of  propagation.  Under  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances, or  when  only  a  few  vines  are  desired,  it  is  better 
to  depend  on  layers.  As  a  stock  upon  which  to  graft  other 
vines,  this  species  has  not  been  a  success.  There  is  great  dif- 
*ficulty  in  crossing  Rotundifolia  with  other  species,  but  several 
Rotundifolia  hybrids  are  now  on  record. 

2.  Vitis  Munsoniana,  Simpson.  Florida  Grape.  Ever- 
bearing grape.  Bird  Grape.  Mustang  Grape  of  Florida. 

Vine  slender,  usually  running  on  the  ground  or  over  low  bushes. 
Canes  angular;  internodes  short;  tendrils  intermittent,  simple. 
Leaves  smaller  and  thinner  than  Rotundifolia  and  rather  more  circular 
in  outline;  not  lobed;  teeth  open  and  spreading;  petiolar  sinus 
V-shaped;  both  surfaces  smooth,  rather  light  green.  Cluster  with 
more  berries  but  about  the  same  size  as  in  Rotundifolia.  Berry  one- 
third  to  one-half  the  diameter,  with  thinner  and  more  tender  skin ; 
black,  shining ;  pulp  less  solid,  more  acid  and  without  muskiness. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  313 

Seeds  about  one-half  the  size  of  those  of  Rotundifolia,  similar  in  other 
respects.     Leafing,  flowering  and  ripening  fruit  very  late. 

The  habitat  of  V.  Munsoniana  is  central  and  southern  Florida 
and  the  Florida  Keys.  It  extends  south  of  the  habitat  of  Ro- 
tundifolia and  blends  into  this  species  at  then*  point  of  meet- 
ing. Munsoniana  appears  to  be  a  variation  of  Rotundifolia, 
fitted  to  subtropical  conditions.  It  is  tender,  not  enduring  a 
lower  temperature  than  zero.  In  the  matter  of  multiplication, 
it  differs  from  V.  rotundifolia  in  that  it  can  be  propagated  readily 
from  cuttings.  Like  Rotundifolia  it  is  resistant  to  phylloxera. 

3.  Vitis  rupestris,  Scheele.  Mountain  Grape.  Rock  Grape. 
Bush  Grape.  Sand  Grape.  Sugar  Grape.  Beach  Grape. 

A  small,  much  branched  shrub  or,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
climbing.  Diaphragm  thin  ;  tendrils  few,  or  if  present,  weak,  usually 
deciduous.  Leaves  small ;  young  leaves  frequently  folded  on  midrib  ; 
broadly  cordate  or  reniform,  wider  than  long,  scarcely  ever  lobed, 
smooth,  glabrous  on  both  surfaces  at  maturity ;  petiolar  sinus  wide, 
shallow ;  margin  coarsely  toothed,  frequently  a  sharp,  abrupt  point 
at  terminal.  Cluster  small.  Berries  small,  black  or  purple-black. 
Seeds  small,  not  notched ;  beak  short,  blunt ;  raphe  distinct  to  indis- 
tinct, usually  showing  as  a  narrow  groove ;  chalaza  pear-shaped, 
sometimes  distinct,  but  usually  a  depression  only.  Leafing,  blossom- 
ing and  ripening  early. 

This  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  southwestern  Texas,  extend- 
ing eastward  and  northward  into  New  Mexico,  southern  Mis- 
souri, Indiana  and  Tennessee  to  southern  Pennsylvania  and  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Its  favorite  places  are  gravelly  banks 
and  bars  of  mountain  streams  or  the  rocky  beds  of  dry  water- 
courses. This  species  is  rather  variable  both  in  type  and 
growth.  It  was  introduced  into  France  at  about  the  same  time 
as  Vulpina,  and  the  French  vineyardists  selected  the  most 
vigorous  and  healthy  forms  for  grafting  stock.  These  pass 
under  the  various  names  of  Rupestris  Mission,  Rupestris  du 
Lot,  Rupestris  Ganzin,  Rupestris  Martin,  Rupestris  St.  George 


314        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

and  others.  In  France,  these  varieties  have  given  particularly 
good  results  on  bare,  rocky  soils  with  hot,  dry  exposures.  In 
California,  Rupestris  does  not  flourish  in  dry  locations,  and  as 
it  suckers  profusely  and  does  not  take  the  graft  as  readily  as 
Vulpina  and  ^Estivalis,  it  is  not  largely  propagated. 

The  clusters  of  fruit  are  small,  with  berries  about  the  size 
of  a  currant  and  varying  from  sweet  to  sour.  The  berry  is 
characterized  by  much  pigment  under  the  skin.  The  fruit 
has  a  sprightly  taste  wholly  free  from  any  disagreeable  foxiness. 
Rupestris  under  cultivation  is  said  to  be  very  resistant  to  rot 
and  mildew  of  the  foliage.  The  vine  is  considered  hardy  in 
the  Southwest.  The  attention  of  hybridizers  was  attracted 
to  this  species  over  thirty  years  ago,  and  various  hybrids  have 
been  produced  of  great  promise  for  grape-breeding.  The  root 
system  of  Rupestris  is  peculiar  in  that  the  roots  penetrate  at 
once  deeply  into  the  ground  instead  of  extending  laterally  as 
in  other  species.  Like  those  of  Vulpina,  the  roots  are  slender, 
hard  and  resistant  to  phylloxera.  The  species  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings.  The  vines  bench-graft  readily  but  are 
difficult  to  handle  in  field  grafting. 

4.  Vitis  wlpina,  Linn.  (V.  riparia,  Michx.).  Winter 
Grape.  River  Grape.  Riverside  Grape.  Riverbank  Grape. 
Sweet-scented  Grape. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  climbing.  Shoots  cylindrical  or  angled,  usually 
smooth,  slender ;  diaphragms  thin ;  tendrils  intermittent,  slender, 
usually  bifid.  Leaves  with  large  stipules ;  leaf-blade  large,  thin, 
entire,  three-  or  lower  ones  often  five-lobed  ;  sinuses  shallow,  angular ; 
petiolar  sinus  broad,  usually  shallow;  margin  with  incised,  sharply 
serrate  teeth  of  variable  size;  light  green,  glabrous  above,  glabrous 
but  sometimes  pubescent  on  ribs  and  veins  below.  Cluster  small, 
compact,  shouldered ;  peduncle  short.  Berries  small,  black  with  a 
heavy  blue  bloom.  Seeds  two  to  four,  small,  notched,  short,  plump, 
with  very  short  beak ;  chalaza  narrowly  oval,  depressed,  indistinct ; 
raphe  usually  a  groove,  sometimes  distinct.  Very  variable  in  flavor 
and  time  of  ripening. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  315 

Vulpina  is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  any  American  species 
of  grape.  It  has  been  discovered  in  parts  of  Canada  north  of 
Quebec  and  from  thence  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It 
is  found  from  the  Atlantic  coast  westward,  most  botanists  say, 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Usually  it  grows  on  river  banks,  on 
islands  or  in  upland  ravines.  Vulpina  has  always  been  con- 
sidered of  great  promise  in  the  evolution  of  American  grapes. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  that  it  has  fulfilled  expectations,  there 
probably  being  no  pure  variety  of  this  species  of  more  than  local 
importance,  and  the  results  of  hybridizing  it  with  other  species 
have  not  been  wholly  successful.  Attention  was  early  turned 
to  Vulpina  because  of  the  qualities  presented  by  the  vine 
rather  than  those  of  the  fruit,  particularly  its  hardiness  and 
vigor.  However,  both  of  these  qualities  are  rather  variable, 
although  it  is  only  reasonable  to  suppose  that  in  such  a  widely 
distributed  species,  plants  found  in  a  certain  region  would  have 
adapted  themselves  to  the  conditions  there  present;  thus,  it 
should  be  expected  that  the  northern  plants  would  be  more 
hardy  than  those  from  the  South,  and  that  the  western  prairie 
forms  would  be  more  capable  of  resisting  drouth  than  those 
from  humid  regions.  It  is,  consequently,  impossible  to  say  what 
conditions  best  suit  this  species.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
Vulpina  is  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  locations; 
vines  have  withstood  a  temperature  of  40  to  60  degrees  below 
zero  and  they  show  equal  ability  in  withstanding  the  injurious 
effects  of  high  temperatures  in  the  summer.  On  account  of  its 
habit  of  early  blooming,  the  blossoms^  sometimes  suffer  from 
late  frosts  in  the  spring. 

While  Vulpina  is  not  a  swamp  grape  and  is  not  found  grow- 
ing under  swampy  conditions,  it  is  fond  of  water.  In  the  semi- 
arid  regions  always,  and  in  humid  regions  usually,  it  is  found 
growing  along  the  banks  of  streams,  in  ravines,  on  the  islands 
of  rivers  and  in  wet  places.  It  is  not  nearly  so  capable  of  with- 
standing drouth  as  Rupestris.  Vulpina  likes  a  rather  rich  soil, 


316         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

but  in  France  has  been  found  to  do  poorly  on  limestone  land 
and  calcareous  marls.  The  French  tell  us,  however,  that  this 
is  a  characteristic  of  all  our  American  grapes,  and  tha,t  Vulpina 
is  more  resistant  to  the  injurious  effects  of  an  excess  of  lime  than 
either  Rupestris  or  ^Estivalis. 

The  fruit  of  Vulpina  is  usually  small,  there  being  occasional 
varieties  of  medium  size  or  above.  The  clusters  are  of  medium 
size  and,  if  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  number  of  berries, 
might  frequently  be  called  large.  The  flavor  is  usually  sharply 
acid  but  free  from  foxiness  or  any  disagreeable  wild  taste.  If 
eaten  in  quantity,  the  acidity  is  likely  to  affect  the  lips  and 
end  of  the  tongue.  When  the  acidity  is  somewhat  ameliorated, 
as  in  the  case  of  thoroughly  ripe  or  even  over-ripe  and  shriveled 
fruit,  the  flavor  is  much  liked.  The  flesh  is  neither  pulpy  nor 
solid  and  dissolves  in  the  mouth  and  separates  readily  from  the 
seed.  The  must  of  Vulpina  is  characterized  by  an  average 
amount  of  sugar,  varying  considerably  in  the  fruit  from  differ- 
ent vines,  and  by  an  excess  of  acid. 

Vulpina  is  very  resistant  to  phylloxera,  the  roots  are  small, 
hard,  numerous  and  branch  freely.  The  roots  feed  close  to 
the  surface  and  do  not  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to  forcing  their 
way  through  heavy  clays.  Vulpina  grows  readily  from  cuttings 
and  makes  a  good  stock  for  grafting,  its  union  with  other  species 
being  usually  permanent.  When  Vulpinas  wrere  first  sent  to 
France  to  be  used  as  a  stock  in  reconstituting  the  French  vine- 
yards, it  was  found  that  many  of  the  vines  secured  from  the 
woods  were  too  weak  in  growth  to  support  the  stronger-growing 
Viniferas.  On  this  account  the  French  growers  selected  the 
more  vigorous  forms  of  the  Vulpinas,  to  which  they  gave  varietal 
names,  as  Vulpina  Gloire,  Vulpina  Grand  Glabre,  Vulpina  Schrib- 
ner,  Vulpina  Martin  and  others.  With  these  selected  Vulpinas, 
the  graft  does  not  outgrow  the  stock.  Vulpina  is  less  resistant 
to  black-rot  than  ^Estivalis  but  somewhat  more  resistant  than 
Labrusca.  The  foliage  is  rarely  attacked  by  mildew.  One  of 


GRAPE   BOTANY  317 

the  chief  failings  of  this  species  is  the  susceptibility  of  the 
leaves  to  the  attack  of  the  leaf-hopper.  The  Vulpinas  are 
generally  late  in  ripening ;  the  fruit  is  better  in  quality  in  long 
seasons  and  should  be  left  on  the  vines  as  late  as  possible. 

5.  Vitis  cordifolia,  Michx.  Winter  Grape.  Frost  Grape. 
Fox  Grape.  Chicken  Grape.  Heart-leaved  Vitis.  Possum 
Grape.  Sour  Winter  Grape. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  climbing.  Shoots  slender ;  internodes  long, 
angular,  usually  glabrous,  sometimes  pubescent ;  diaphragms  thick ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  long,  usually  bifid.  Leaves  with  short,  broad 
stipules ;  leaf -blade  medium  to  large,  cordate,  entire  or  indistinctly 
three-lobed ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  usually  narrow,  acute ;  margin  with 
coarse  angular  teeth ;  point  of  leaf  acuminate ;  upper  surface  light 
green,  glossy,  glabrous ;  glabrous  or  sparingly  pubescent  below. 
Clusters  medium  to  large,  loose,  with  long  peduncle.  Berries  numerous 
and  small,  black,  shining,  little  or  no  bloom.  Seeds  medium  in  size, 
broad,  beak  short ;  chalaza  oval  or  roundish,  elevated,  very  distinct ; 
raphe  a  distinct,  cord-like  ridge.  Fruit  sour  and  astringent  and 
frequently  consisting  of  little  besides  skins  and  seeds.  Leafing, 
flowering  and  ripening  fruit  very  late. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  Cordifolia  and  Vulpina  have  been 
badly  confused,  the  limits  of  the  habitat  of  this  species  are 
difficult  to  determine.  The  best  authorities  give  the  northern 
limit  as  New  York  or  the  Great  Lakes.  The  eastern  limit  is 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  southern  limit,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
It  extends  westward,  according  to  Engelmann,  to  the  western 
limits  of  the  wooded  portion  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  the 
North,  and,  according  to  Munson,  to  the  Brazos  River,  Texas, 
in  the  South.  It  is  found  along  creeks  and  river  banks  some- 
times mixed  with  Vulpina,  having  about^  the  same  soil  adapta- 
tions as  that  species.  It  is  a  very  common  species  in  the 
middle  states  and  frequently  grows  on  limestone  soils,  but 
is  not  indigenous  to  such  soils. 

Cordifolia  makes  a  good  stock  for  grafting,  being  vigorous 
and  forming  a  good  union  with  most  of  our  cultivated  grapes. 


318        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

It  is  seldom  used  for  this  purpose,  however,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  propagating  it  by  means  of  cuttings.  For  the 
same  reason  vines  of  it  are  seldom  found  in  cultivation. 

6.  Vitis    Berlandieri,   Planch.     Mountain    Grape.     Spanish 
Grape.     Fall  Grape.     Winter  Grape.     Little  Mountain  Grape. 

Vine  vigorous,  climbing ;  shoots  more  or  less  angled  and  pubescent ; 
pubescence  remaining  only  in  patches  on  mature  wood ;  canes  mostly 
with  short  internodes  ;  diaphragms  thick ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long, 
strong,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  with  small  stipules ;  leaf -blade  large, 
broadly  cordate,  notched  or  shortly  three-lobed ;  petiolar  sinus  rather 
open,  V-  or  U-shaped,  margin  with  broad  but  rather  shallow  teeth, 
rather  dark  glossy  green  above,  grayish  pubescence  below  when 
young ;  becoming  glabrous  and  even  glossy  except  on  ribs  and  veins, 
when  mature.  Clusters  large,  compact,  compound,  with  long  peduncle. 
Berries  small,  black,  with  thin  bloom,  juicy,  rather  tart  but  pleasant 
tasting  when  thoroughly  ripe.  Seeds  few,  small,  short,  plump,  oval 
or  roundish,  with  short  beak ;  chalaza  oval  or  roundish,  distinct ; 
raphe  narrow,  slightly  distinct  to  indistinct.  Leafing,  flowering  and 
ripening  fruit  very  late. 

Berlandieri  is  a  native  of  the  limestone  hills  of  southwest 
Texas  and  adjacent  Mexico.  It  grows  in  the  same  region  with 
V.  monticola,  but  is  less  restricted  locally,  growing  from  the 
tops  of  the  hills  down  and  along  the  creek  bottoms  of  these 
regions.  Its  great  virtue  is  that  it  withstands  a  soil  largely 
composed  of  lime,  being  superior  to  all  other  American  species 
in  this  respect.  This  and  its  moderate  degree  of  vigor  have 
recommended  it  to  the  French  growers  as  a  stock  for  their  cal- 
careous soils.  The  roots  are  strong,  thick,  and  very  resistant 
to  phylloxera.  It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  with  comparative 
ease,  but  its  varieties  are  variable,  some  not  rooting  at  all 
easily.  While  the  fruit  of  this  species  shows  a  large  cluster, 
the  berries  are  small  and  sour,  and  Berlandieri  is  not  regarded 
as  having  promise  for  culture  in  America. 

7.  Vitis   cestivalis,    Michx.      Blue    Grape.      Bunch    Grape. 
Summer   Grape.     Little   Grape.     Duck-shot    Grape.     Swamp 
Grape.      Chicken  Grape.     Pigeon  Grape. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  319 

Vine  very  vigorous ,  shoots  pubescent  or  smooth  when  young ; 
diaphragms  thick;  tendrils  intermittent,  usually  bifid.  Leaves  with 
short,  broad  stipules  ;  leaf -blade  large,  thin  when  young  but  becoming 
thick ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  usually  narrow,  frequently  overlapping ; 
margin  rarely  entire,  usually  three-  to  five-lobed ;  teeth  dentate, 
shallow,  wide  ;  upper  surface  dark  green ;  lower  surface  with  more  or 
less  reddish  or  rusty  pubescence  which,  in  mature  leaves,  usually  shows 
in  patches  on  the  ribs  and  veins ;  petioles  frequently  pubescent. 
Clusters  long,  not  much  branched,  with  long  peduncle.  Berries  small, 
with  moderate  amount  of  bloom,  usually  astringent.  Seeds  two  to 
three,  of  medium  size,  plump,  smooth,  not  notched;  chalaza  oval, 
distinct ;  raphe  a  distinct  cord-like  ridge.  Leafing  and  ripening  fruit 
late  to  very  late. 

The  division  of  the  original  species  has  reduced  the  habitat 
materially,  confining  it  to  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  from  southern  New  York  to  Florida  and  westward  to 
the  Mississippi  River.  ^Estivalis  grows  in  thickets  and  open- 
ings in  the  woods  and  shows  no  such  fondness  for  streams  as 
Vulpina,  or  for  thick  timber  as  Labrusca,  but  is  generally  con- 
fined to  uplands.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  the  vines 
grow  to  be  very  large.  ^Estivalis  is  preeminently  a  wine  grape. 
The  fruit  usually  has  a  tart,  acrid  taste,  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  high  percentage  of  acid,  but  there  is  also  a  large  amount  of 
sugar,  the  scale  showing  that  juice  from  this  species  has  a  much 
higher  percentage  of  sugar  than  the  sweeter-tasting  Labruscas. 
The  wine  made  from  varieties  of  ^Estivalis  is  very  rich  in  color- 
ing matter  and  is  used  by  some  European  vintners  to  mix  with 
the  must  of  European  sorts  in  order  to  give  the  combined 
product  a  higher  color.  The  berries  are  destitute  of  pulp, 
have  a  comparatively  thin,  tough  skin  and  a  peculiar  spicy 
flavor.  The  berries  hang  to  the  bunch  after  becoming  ripe 
much  better  than  do  those  of  Labrusca. 

This  species  thrives  in  a  lighter  and  shallower  soil  than 
Labrusca  and  appears  to  endure  drought  better,  although  not 
equaling  in  this  respect  either  Vulpina  or  Rupestris.  The 
French  growers  report  that  ^Estivalis  is  very  liable  to  chlorosis 


320        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

on  soils  which  contain  much  lime.  The  leaves  are  never  in- 
jured by  the  sun  and  they  resist  the  attacks  of  insects,  such  as 
leaf-hoppers,  better  than  any  other  American  species  under 
cultivation.  ^Estivalis  is  rarely  injured  by  black-rot  or  mildew, 
according  to  American  experience,  but  French  growers  speak 
of  its  being  susceptible  to  both.  The  hard  roots  of  ^Estivalis 
enable  it  to  resist  phylloxera,  and  varieties  with  any  great 
amount  of  the  blood  of  this  species  are  seldom  seriously  injured 
by  this  insect.  An  objection  to  ^Estivalis,  from  a  horticultural 
standpoint,  is  that  it  does  not  root  well  from  cuttings.  Many 
authorities  speak  of  it  as  not  rooting  at  all  from  cuttings,  but 
this  is  an  over-statement  of  the  facts,  as  many  of  the  wild  and 
cultivated  varieties  are  occasionally  propagated  in  this  manner, 
and  some  southern  nurseries,  located  in  particularly  favorable 
situations,  make  a  practice  of  propagating  it  by  this  method. 
Varieties  of  this  species  bear  grafting  well,  especially  in  the 
vineyard. 

Vitis  oestioalis  Lincecumii,  Munson.  Post-oak  Grape. 
Pine-wood  Grape.  Turkey  Grape. 

Vine  vigorous,  sometimes  climbing  high  upon  trees,  sometimes 
forming  a  bushy  clump  from  two  to  six  feet  high ;  canes  cylindrical, 
much  rusty  wool  on  shoots  ;  tendrils  intermittent.  Leaves  very  large, 
almost  as  wide  as  long ;  entire  or  three-,  five-,  or  rarely  seven-lobed ; 
lobes  frequently  divided ;  sinuses,  including  petiolar  sinus,  deep ; 
smooth  above,  and  with  more  or  less  rusty  pubescence  below.  (The 
north-Texas,  southwestern  Missouri  and  northern  Arkansas  form 
shows  little  or  no  pubescence  but  has  fine  prickly  spines  at  base  of 
shoots  and  shows  much  blue  bloom  on  shoots,  canes  and  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves.)  Fruit  small  to  large,  usually  larger  than  typical  ^5Cs- 
tivalis,  usually  black,  with  heavy  bloom.  Seeds  larger  than  ^Estivalis, 
pear-shaped ;  chalaza  roimdish. 

Lincecumii  inhabits  the  eastern  half  of  Texas,  western  Loui- 
siana, Oklahoma,  Arkansas  and  southern  Missouri  on  high 
sandy  land,  frequently  climbing  post-oak  trees,  hence  the 
name,  post-oak  grape,  by  which  it  is  locally  known. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  321 

Lincecumii  has  attracted  considerable  attention  through 
the  work  of  H.  Jaeger  and  T.  V.  Munson  in  domesticating  it, 
both  of  whom  considered  it  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the  most, 
promising  form  from  which  to  secure  cultivated  varieties  for 
the  Southwest.  The  qualities  which  recommend  it  are  :  First, 
vigor;  second,  capacity  to  withstand  rot  and  mildew;  third, 
hardiness  and  capacity  to  endure  hot  and  dry  summers  without 
injury ;  fourth,  the  large  cluster  and  berry  which  were  found 
on  certain  of  the  wild  vines.  The  fruit  is  characteristic  because 
of  its  dense  bloom,  firm,  yet  tender  texture  and  peculiar  flavor. 
The  cultivated  varieties  have  given  satisfaction  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  Central  Western  and  Southern  states.  Like 
^Estivalis,  it  is  difficult  to  propagate  from  cuttings. 

The  north-Texas  glaucous  form  of  this  variety  mentioned  in 
the  technical  description  above  is  the  V.  cestivalis  glauca  of 
Bailey.  This  is  the  type  of  Lincecumii  that  Munson  has  used 
in  breeding  work. 

Vitis  cestivalis  Bourquiniana,  Bailey.     Southern  ^Estivalis. 

Bourquiniana  differs  chiefly  from  the  type  in  having  thinner 
leaves ;  the  shoots  and  under  side  of  the  leaves  are  only 
slightly  reddish-brown  in  color;  the  pubescence  usually  dis- 
appears at  maturity ;  the  leaves  are  more  deeply  lobed  than 
is  common  in  ^Estivalis;  and  the  fruit  is  larger,  sweeter  and 
more  juicy.  Bourquiniana  is  known  only  in  cultivation. 
The  name  was  given  by  Munson,  who  ranks  the  group  as  a 
species.  He  includes  therein  many  southern  varieties,  the 
most  important  of  which  are :  Herbemont,  Bertrand,  Cun- 
ningham and  Lenoir,  grouped  in  the  Herbemont  section ;  and 
Devereaux,  Louisiana  and  Warren,  in  the  Devereaux  section. 
Munson  has  traced  the  history  of  this  interesting  group  and 
states  that  it  wras  brought  from  southern  France  to  America 
over  one  hundred  fifty  years  ago  by  the  Bourquin  family 
of  Savannah,  Georgia.  Many  botanists  are  of  the  opinion 


322         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

that  Bourquiniana  is  a  hybrid.  The  hybrid  supposition  is 
corroborated  to  a  degree  by  the  characters  being  more  or  less 
intermediate  between  the  supposed  parent  species,  and  also 
by  the  fact  that  up  to  date  no  wild  form  of  Bourquiniana  has 
been  found.  The  only  northern  variety  of  any  importance 
supposed  to  have  Bourquiniana  blood  is  the  Delaware,  and  in 
this  variety  only  a  fraction  of  Bourquiniana  blood  is  presum- 
ably present.  Bourquiniana  can  be  propagated  from  cuttings 
more  easily  than  the  typical  ^Estivalis  but  not  so  readily  as 
Labrusca,  Vulpina  or  Vinifera.  Many  of  the  varieties  of  Bour- 
quiniana show  a  marked  susceptibility  to  mildew  and  black- 
rot  ;  in  fact,  the  whole  Herbemont  group  is  much  inferior  in 
this  respect  to  the  Norton  group  of  ^Estivalis.  The  roots  are 
somewhat  hard,  branch  rather  freely  and  are  quite  resistant 
to  phylloxera. 

8.  Vitis  bicolor,  Le  Conte.  Blue  Grape.  Northern  Summer 
Grape.  Northern  ^Estivalis. 

Vine  vigorous,  climbing ;  shoots  cylindrical  or  angled,  with  long 
internodes,  generally  glabrous,  usually  showing  much  blue  bloom, 
sometimes  spiny  at  base;  diaphragms  thick;  tendrils  intermittent, 
long,  usually  bifid.  Leaves  with  short,  broad  stipules ;  leaf-blade 
large ;  roundish-cordate,  usually  three-,  sometimes  on  older  growth 
shallowly  five-lobed,  rarely  entire ;  petiolar  sinus  variable  in  depth, 
usually  narrow ;  margin  irregularly  dentate ;  teeth  acuminate ;  gla- 
brous above,  usually  glabrous  below  and  showing  much  blue  bloom  which 
sometimes  disappears  late  in  the  season ;  young  leaves  sometimes 
pubescent ;  petioles  very  long.  Cluster  of  medium  size,  compact, 
simple ;  peduncle  long.  Berries  small,  black  with  much  bloom,  acid 
but  pleasant  tasting  when  ripe.  Seeds  small,  plump,  broadly  oval, 
very  short  beak ;  chalaza  oval,  raised,  distinct ;  raphe  distinct,  showing 
as  a  cord-like  ridge. 

Bicolor  is  readily  distinguished  from  ^Estivalis  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  reddish  pubescence  and  by  blooming  slightly  later. 
The  habitat  of  Bicolor  is  to  the  north  of  that  of  ^Estivalis,  oc- 
cupying the  northeastern,  whereas  ^Estivalis  occupies  the 


GRAPE   BOTANY  323 

southeastern  quarter  of  the  United  States.  Like  ^Estivalis, 
this  species  is  not  confined  to  streams  and  river  banks  but 
frequently  grows  on  higher  land  also.  It  is  found  in  north 
Missouri,  Illinois,  southwestern  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  southern 
Michigan,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  south- 
western Ontario,  New  Jersey  and  Maryland  and  by  some 
botanists  is  reported  as  far  south  as  western  North  Carolina 
and  west  Tennessee. 

The  horticultural  characters  of  Bicolor  are  much  the  same 
as  those  of  ^Estivalis.  About  the  only  points  of  difference  are 
that  it  is  much  hardier  (some  of  the  Wisconsin  vines  stand  a 
temperature  as  low  as  20  degrees  below  zero) ;  it  is  said  to  be 
slightly  less  resistant  to  mildew  and  more  resistant  to  phyl- 
loxera. Like  ^Estivalis,  Bicolor  does  not  thrive  on  limy  soils 
and  it  is  difficult  to  propagate  from  cuttings.  The  horticultural 
possibilities  of  Bicolor  are  probably  much  the  same  as  those  of 
^Estivalis,  although  many  think  it  to  be  more  promising  for  the 
North.  It  is  as  yet  cultivated  but  little.  Its  chief  defect  for 
domestication  is  the  small  size  of  the  fruit. 

9.   Vitis  candicans,  Englem.     Mustang  Grape. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  climbing ;  shoots  and  petioles  densely  wooly, 
whitish  or  rusty ;  diaphragm  thick ;  tendrils  intermittent.  Leaves 
with  large  stipules ;  blade  small,  broadly  cordate  to  reniform-ovate, 
entire  or  in  young  shoots  and  on  young  vines  and  sprouts  usually 
deeply  three-  to  five-,  or  even  seven-lobed ;  teeth  shallow,  sinuate ; 
petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide,  sometimes  lacking ;  dull,  slightly  rugose 
above,  dense  whitish  pubescence  below.  Clusters  small.  Berries 
medium  to  large,  black,  purple,  green,  or  even  whitish,  thin  blue  bloom 
or  bloomless.  Seeds  usually  three  or  four,  large,  short,  plump,  blunt, 
notched  ;  chalaza  oval,  depressed,  indistinct ;  raphe  a  broad  groove. 

The  habitat  of  this  grape  extends  from  southern  Oklahoma, 
as  a  northern  limit,  southwesterly  into  Mexico.  The  western 
boundary  is  the  Pecos  River.  It  is  found  on  dry,  alluvial, 
sandv  or  limestone  bottoms  or  on  limestone  bluff  lands  and  is 


324        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

said  to  be  especially  abundant  along  upland  ravines.  Ca.idi- 
cans  grows  well  on  limestone  lands,  enduring  as  much  as  60  per 
cent  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil.  The  species  blooms  shortly 
before  Labrusca  and  a  week  later  than  Vulpina.  It  requires 
the  long  hot  summers  of  its  native  country  and  will  stand  ex- 
treme drouth  but  is  not  hardy  to  cold,  10  or  15  degrees  below 
zero  killing  the  vine  outright  unless  protected ;  and  a  lesser 
degree  of  cold  injuring  it  severely.  The  berries,  which  are 
large  for  wild  vines,  have  thin  skins  under  which  there  is  a  pig- 
ment which  gives  them,  when  first  ripe,  a  fiery,  pungent  taste 
but  which  partly  disappears  with  maturity*  The  berries  are 
very  persistent,  clinging  to  the  pedicel  long  after  ripe.  Candi- 
cans  is  difficult  to  propagate  from  cuttings.  Its  roots  resist 
phylloxera  fairly  well.  It  makes  a  good  stock  for  Vinifera  vines 
in  its  native  country,  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  propagation 
is  seldom  used  for  that  purpose.  In  the  early  days  of  Texas, 
it  was  much  used  for  the  making  of  wine  but  as  it  is  deficient 
in  sugar,  and  as  the  must  retains  the  acrid,  pungent  flavor,  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  well  adapted  for  this  purpose.  It  is  not 
regarded  as  having  great  promise  for  southern  horticulture 
and  certainly  has  none  for  the  North. 

10.   Vitis  Labrusca,  Linn.     Fox-Grape. 

Vine  vigorous,  stocky,  climbing ;  shoots  cylindrical,  densely  pubes- 
cent ;  diaphragms  medium  to  thick ;  tendrils  continuous,  strong, 
bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  with  long,  cordate  stipules ;  leaf-blade  large, 
thick,  broadly  cordate  or  round ;  entire  or  three-lobed,  frequently 
notched  ;  sinuses  rounded  ;  petiolar  sinus  variable  in  depth  and  width, 
V-shaped ;  margin  with  shallow,  acute-pointed,  scalloped  teeth ;  upper 
surface  rugose,  dark  green,  on  young  leaves  pubescent,  becoming 
glabrous  when  mature ;  lower  surface  covered  with  dense  pubescence, 
more  or  less  whitish  on  young  leaves,  becoming  dun-colored  when 
mature.  Clusters  more  or  less  compound,  usually  shouldered,  com- 
pact ;  pedicels  thick ;  peduncle  short.  Berries  round ;  skin  thick, 
covered  with  bloom,  with  strong  musky  or  foxy  aroma.  Seeds  two 
to  four,  large,  distinctly  notched,  beak  short ;  chalaza  oval  in  shape 
indistinct,  showing  as  a  depression  ;  raphe,  a  groove. 


GRAPE   BOTANY  325 

Labrusca  is  indigenous  to  the  eastern  part  of  North  America, 
including  the  region  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  the  valleys 
and  along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies.  Many  botan- 
ists say  it  never  occurs  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  the  first- 
named  area  it  ranges  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  It  has  the  most 
restricted  habitat  of  any  American  species  of  horticultural  im- 
portance, being  much  exceeded  in  extent  of  territory  by  V. 
rotundifolia,  V.  cestivalis  and  V.  vulpina. 

Labrusca  has  furnished  more  cultivated  varieties,  either  pure- 
breeds  or  hybrids,  than  all  other  American  species  together. 
The  reason  for  this  is  partly,  no  doubt,  that  it  is  native  to  the 
portion  of  the  United  States  first  settled  and  is  the  most  com- 
mon grape  in  the  region  where  agriculture  first  advanced  to 
the  condition  at  which  fruits  were  desired.  This  does  not 
wholly  account  for  its  prominence,  however,  which  must  be 
sought  elsewhere.  In  its  wild  state,  Labrusca  is  probably  the 
most  attractive  to  the  eye  of  any  of  our  American  grapes  on 
account  of  the  size  of  its  fruit,  and  this  undoubtedly  turned  the 
attention  of  those  who  were  early  interested  in  the  possibilities 
of  American  grape-growing  to  this  species  rather  than  to  any 
other. 

The  southern  Labrusca  is  quite  different  from  the  northern 
form  and  demands  different  conditions  for  its  successful  growth ; 
in  the  North,  at  least  two  types  of  the  species  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. Vines  are  found  in  the  woods  of  New  England 
which  resemble  Concord  very  closely  in  both  vine  and  fruit, 
excepting  that  the  grapes  are  much  smaller  in  size  and  more 
seedy.  There  is  also  the  large-fruited,  foxy  Labrusca,  usually 
with  reddish  berries,  represented  by  such  cultivated  varieties 
as  Northern  Muscadine,  Dracut  Amber,  Lutie  and  others. 
Labrusca  is  peculiar  amongst  American  grapes  in  show- 
ing black-,  white-  and  red-fruited  forms  of  wild  vines 
growing  in  the  woods,  Because  of  this  variability,  it  is  im- 


326        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

possible  to  give  the  exact  climatic  and  soil  conditions  best 
adapted  to  the  species.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  however, 
that  the  ideal  conditions  for  this  species  under  cultivation  are 
not  widely  different  from  those  prevailing  where  the  species  is 
indigenous.  In  the  case  of  Labrusca,  this  means  that  it  is 
best  adapted  to  humid  climates,  and  that  the  temperature  de- 
sired varies  according  to  whether  the  variety  comes  from  the 
southern  or  northern  form  of  the  species. 

The  root  system  of  Labrusca  does  not  penetrate  the  soil 
deeply,  but  the  vine  is  said  to  succeed  better  in  deep  and  clayey 
soils  than  ^Estivalis.  It  endures  an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  less  water  for  successful  grow- 
ing than  ^Estivalis  or  Vulpina.  In  spite  of  its  ability  to  with- 
stand clayey  soils,  it  seems  to  prefer  loose,  warm,  well-drained 
sandy  lands  to  all  others.  The  French  growers  report  that  all 
varieties  of  this  species  show  a  marked  antipathy  to  a  lime- 
stone soil,  the  vines  soon  becoming  affected  with  chlorosis  when 
planted  in  soils  of  this  nature.  In  corroboration  of  this,  it  may 
be  said  that  Labrusca  is  not  often  found  wild  in  limestone  soils. 
The  Labruscas  succeed  very  well  in  the  North  and  fairly  well 
in  the  Middle  West  as  far  south  as  Arkansas,  where  they  are 
raised  on  account  of  their  fruit  qualities,  for  here  the  vines 
are  not  nearly  so  vigorous  and  healthy  as  are  those  of  other 
species.  In  Alabama,  they  are  reported  to  be  generally  unsatis- 
factory, and  in  Texas  the  vines  are  short-lived,  unhealthy, 
and  generally  unsatisfactory,  particularly  in  the  dry -regions. 
There  are  some  exceptions  to  this,  as  for  instance,  in  the  Pied- 
mont region  of  the  Carolinas,  where,  owing  to  elevation  or  other 
causes,  the  climate  of  a  southern  region  is  semi-northern  in  its 
character. 

The  grapes  of  Labrusca  are  large  and  usually  handsomely 
colored.  The  skin  is  thick,  covering  a  layer  of  adhering  flesh, 
which  gives  the  impression  of  its  being  thicker  than  it  actually 
is;  the  berry  is  variable  in  tenderness,  sometimes  tough,  but 


GRAPE   BOTANY  327 

in  many  cultivated  varieties  is  so  tender  that  it  cracks  in  trans- 
portation. The  skin  of  this  species  usually  has  a  peculiar  aroma, 
generally  spoken  of  as  foxy,  and  a  slightly  acid,  astringent  taste. 
Beneath  the  skin  there  is  a  layer  of  juicy  pulp,  quite  sweet  and 
never  showing  much  acidity  in  ripe  fruit.  The  center  of  the 
berry  is  occupied  by  rather  dense  pulp,  more  or  less  stringy, 
with  considerable  acid  close  to  the  seeds.  Many  object  to  the 
foxy  aroma  of  this  species,  but,  nevertheless,  the  most  popular 
American  varieties  are  more  or  less  foxy.  Analyses  show 
that  the  fruit  is  usually  characterized  by  a  low  percentage  of 
sugar  and  acid,  the  very  sweet-tasting  fox-grapes  not  showing 
as  high  a  sugar-content  as  some  of  the  disagreeably  tart  ^Esti- 
valis  and  Vulpina  sorts.  This,  in  addition  to  the  foxiness  which 
furnishes  an  excess  of  aroma  in  the  wine,  has  prevented  Labrusca 
varieties  from  becoming  favorites  with  the  wine-makers,  but 
most  of  the  grape- juice  now  manufactured  is  made  from  them. 
In  addition  to  the  characters  enumerated,  it  may  be  said  that 
Labrusca  submits  well  to  vineyard  culture,  is  fairly  vigorous 
and  generally  quite  productive.  It  grows  readily  from  cuttings 
and  in  hardiness  is  intermediate  between  Vulpina,  the  hardiest 
of  our  American  species,  and  ^Estivalis.  The  roots  are  soft 
and  fleshy  (for  an  American  grape)  and  in  some  localities  subject 
to  attacks  of  phylloxera.  None  of  the  varieties  of  Labrusca 
has  ever  been  popular  in  France  on  this  account.  In 
the  wild  vines,  the  fruit  is  inclined  to  drop  when  ripe. 
This  defect  is  known  as  "shattering"  or  "shelling"  among 
grape-growers  and  is  a  serious  weakness  in  some  varieties. 
Labrusca  is  said  to  be  more  sensitive  in  its  wild  state  to  mildew 
and  black-rot  than  any  other  American  species,  but  the  evidence 
on  this  point  does  not  seem  to  be  wholly  conclusive.  In  the 
South,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Middle  West,  the  leaves  of  all 
varieties  of  Labrusca  sunburn  and  shrivel  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  summer.  The  vines  do  not  endure  drouth  as  well  as 
tivalis  or  Vulpina  and  not  nearly  so  well  as  Rupestris. 


328        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

11.   Vitis  vinifera,  Linn. 

Vine  variable  in  vigor,  not  so  high  climbing  as  most  American 
species;  tendrils  intermittent.  Leaves  round-cordate,  thin,  smooth, 
and  when  young,  shining,  frequently  more  or  less  deeply  three-,  five-, 
or  even  seven-lobed  ;  usually  glabrous  but  in  some  varieties  the  leaves 
and  young  shoots  are  hairy  and  even  downy  when  young;  lobes 
rounded  or  pointed;  teeth  variable;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow, 
usually  overlapping.  Berries  very  variable  in  size  and  color,  usually 
oval  though  globular.  Seeds  variable  in  size  and  shape,  usually 
notched  at  upper  end  and  characterized  always  by  a  bottle-necked, 
elongated  beak ;  chalaza  broad,  usually  rough,  distinct ;  raphe  in- 
distinct. Roots  large,  soft  and  spongy. 

The  original  habitat  of  the  species  is  not  positively  known. 
De  Candolle,  as  noted  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  considered 
the  region  about  the  Caspian  Sea  as  the  probable  habitat  of 
the  Old  World  grape.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  origi- 
nal home  of  V.  vinifera  is  some  place  in  western  Asia. 

Neither  American  nor  European  writers  agree  as  to  the 
climate  desired  by  Vinifera,  for  the  reason,  probably  that  all 
of  the  varieties  in  this  variable  species  do  not  require  the  same 
climatic  conditions.  There  are  certain  phases  of  climate,  how- 
ever, that  are  well  agreed  on  :  the  species  requires  a  warm,  dry 
climate  and  is  more  sensitive  to  change  of  temperature  than 
American  species.  Varieties  of  this  species  can  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully in  a  wide  variety  of  soils,  being  much  less  particular 
as  to  soils  than  American  sorts. 

Certain  characters  of  the  fruit  of  this  species  are  not  found 
in  any  American  forms :  First,  the  skin,  which  is  attached  very 
closely  to  the  flesh  and  which  is  never  astringent  or  acid,  can 
be  eaten  with  the  fruit ;  second,  the  flesh  is  firm,  yet  tender, 
and  uniform  throughout,  differing  in  this  respect  from  all 
American  grapes  which  have  a  sweet,  watery  and  tender  pulp 
close  to  the  skin  with  a  tough  and  more  or  less  acid  core  at 
the  center;  third,  the  flavor  has  a  peculiarly  sprightly  quality 
known  as  vinous;  fourth,  the  berry  adheres  firmly  to  the 


X 


GRAPE  BOTANY  329 

pedicel,    the  fruit    seldom    " shattering "   or   "shelling"   from 
the  cluster. 

In  the  various  hybrids  that  have  been  made  between  American 
and  Vinifera  varieties,  it  is  usually  found  that  the  desirable 
qualities  of  Vinifera  are  inherited  in  about  the  same  proportion 
as  the  undesirable  ones.  The  fruit  is  improved  in  the  hybrid 
but  the  vine  is  weakened ;  quality  is  usually  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  hardiness  and  disease-resisting  power.  Vinifera  may 
be  grown  very  readily  from  cuttings. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES 

NATURE  has  expended  her  bounties  in  fullest  measure  for 
the  vineyard.  More  than  2000  varieties  of  grapes  are  de- 
scribed in  American  viticultural  literature,  and  twice  as  many 
more  find  mention  in  European  treatises  on  the  vine.  Few 
other  fruits  offer  the  novelties  given  the  grape  in  flavors, 
aromas,  sizes,  colors  and  uses.  The  vineyard,  then,  to  fulfill 
commercial  potentialities,  should  supply  grapes  throughout  the 
whole  season,  and  of  the  several  colors  and  flavors  and  for  all 
uses.  A  prime  requisite  for  a  vineyard  being  well-selected 
varieties,  an  assortment  of  all  kinds  and  for  all  places  in 
America  is  here  described. 

ACTONI 

(Vinifera) 

Actoni  is  a  table-grape  of  the  Malaga  type  which  ripens  at 
Geneva,  New  York,  late  in  October,  too  late  for  the  average 
season  in  the  East  but  worth  trying  in  favorable  locations. 
It  is  grown  in  California  but  is  not  a  favorite  sort.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  description  is  made  from  fruit  grown  at  Geneva : 

Clusters  large,  shouldered,  tapering,  loose ;  berries  medium  to  very 
large,  long-oval  to  oval,  clear  green  yellow ;  flesh  crisp,  firm ;  flavor 
sweet ;  quality  good. 

330 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  331 

AGAWAM 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 
Randall,  Rogers  No.  15 

The  qualities  commending  Agawam  are  large  size  and  attrac- 
tive appearance  of  bunch  and  berry;  rich,  sweet  aromatic 
flavor;  vigor  of  vine;  and  capacity  for  self-fertilization. 
For  a  grape  having  its  proportion  of  European  parentage,  the 
vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  The  chief  defects 
in  fruit  are  a  thick  and  rough  skin,  coarse,  solid  texture  of 
pulp  and  foxy  flavor.  The  vine  is  susceptible  to  the  mildews 
and  in  many  localities  does  not  yield  well.  Although  Agawam 
ripens  soon  after  Concord,  it  can  be  kept  much  longer  and  even 
improves  in  flavor  after  picking.  The  vines  prefer  heavy  soils, 
doing  better  on  clay  than  on  sand  or  gravel.  This  is  one  of 
the  grapes  grown  by  E.  S.  Rogers,  Salem,  Massachusetts. 
It  was  introduced  as  No.  15  but  in  1861  was  given  the  name  it 
now  bears. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  thick,  dark  brown; 
nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  internodes  short;  tendrils  intermittent, 
bifid  to  trifid.  Leaves  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ; 
lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent,  flocculent ;  lobes  lacking ;  termi- 
nus acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  lateral  sinus  very  shallow ; 
teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  on  plan  of  six,  nearly  self-fertile,  open 
late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  until  mid-winter.  Clusters  medium  to  large, 
short,  broad,  tapering,  loose ;  pedicel  short ;  brush  very  short,  pale 
green.  Berries  large,  oval,  dark  purplish-red  with  thin  bloom,  very 
persistent ;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green, 
translucent,  tough,  stringy,  solid,  foxy;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  two 
to  five,  large,  long,  brown. 

ALMERIA 

CVinifera) 

This  is  one  of  the  varieties  commonly  found  in  eastern  mar- 
kets from  Almeria  and  Malaga,  Spain,  although  occasionally 


332        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

it  may  come  from  California  where  the  variety,  or  similar  varie- 
ties confused  with  it,  is  now  grown.  This  sort  is  remarkable 
for  its  wonderful  keeping  qualities ;  it  is  adapted  only  to  hot 
interior  regions.  The  Almeria  cultivated  by  the  California 
Experiment  Station  is  described  as  follows : 

"Vine  vigorous;  leaves  of  medium  size,  round  and  slightly  or  not 
at  all  lobed,  quite  glabrous  on  both  sides,  teeth  obtuse  and  alternately 
large  and  small ;  bunches  large,  loose  or  compact,  irregular  conical ; 
berries  from  small  to  large,  cylindrical,  flattened  on  the  ends,  very 
hard  and  tasteless." 

AMERICA 

(Lincecumii,  Rupestris) 

The  notable  qualities  of  America  are  vigor  of  growth  and 
health  of  foliage  in  vine,  and  persistence  of  berries,  which  have 
strongly  colored  red  juice,  high  sugar-content  and  excellent 
flavor.  The  grapes  wholly  lack  the  foxy  taste  and  aroma  of 
Labrusca  and  the  variety,  therefore,  offers  possibilities  for 
breeding  sorts  lacking  the  foxy  flavor  of  Concord  and  Niagara. 
America  has  great  resistance  to  heat  and  cold.  Also,  it  is 
said  to  be  a  suitable  stock  upon  which  to  graft  Vinifera  varieties 
to  resist  phylloxera.  The  vigor  of  the  vine  and  the  luxuriance 
of  the  foliage  make  it  an  excellent  sort  for  arbors.  America 
was  grown  by  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Texas,  from  seed  of 
Jaeger  No.  43  pollinated  by  a  male  Rupestris.  It  was  intro- 
duced about  1892. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  dark 
reddish-brown  with  heavy  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  tendrils 
intermittent,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  small,  thin;  upper  surface  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  light  green,  hairy ;  lobes  lacking  or  faint, 
terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep  and  wide ;  teeth  of  average 
depth  and  width.  Flowers  self-sterile,  usually  on  plan  of  six,  open 
late ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season  or  later,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad, 
tapering,  irregular,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender 
with  small  warts;  brush  short,  thick  with  red  tinge.  Berries  small, 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  333 

variable  in  size,  round,  purplish-black,  glossy  with  purplish-red  pig- 
ment, astringent ;  flesh  dull  white  with  faint  red  tinge,  translucent, 
tender,  melting,  spicy,  vinous,  sweet ;  good.  Seeds  free,  two  to  five, 
long,  pointed,  yellowish-brown. 

AMINIA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Aminia  is  one  of  the  best  early  grapes,  its  season  being  with 
or  a  little  after  Moore  Early.  The  grapes  are  of  high  quality 
and  attractive  appearance,  but  the  bunches  are  small,  variable 
in  size,  not  well  formed  and  the  berries  ripen  unevenly.  The 
vine  is  vigorous  but  is  neither  as  hardy  nor  as  productive  as  a 
commercial  variety  should  be.  In  1867  Isadora  Bush,  a  Mis- 
sourian,  planted  vines  of  Rogers  No.  39  from  several  different 
sources.  When  these  came  into  bearing,  he  distinguished 
three  varieties.  Bush  selected  the  best  of  the  three  and,  with 
the  consent  of  Rogers,  named  it  Aminia.  In  spite  of  Bush's 
care,  there  are  two  distinct  grapes  cultivated  under  this  name. 

Vine  vigorous,  precariously  hardy,  lacking  in  productiveness. 
Canes  rough,  long,  thick,  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes 
long ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  trifid  or  bifid,  persistent.  Leaves 
large  ;  upper  surface  dull,  smooth  ;  lower  surface  light  green,  pubescent ; 
lobes  three;  terminal  lobe  acute;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  often 
closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus 
shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  open  in  mid-season, 
self-sterile ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  broad,  irregular,  coni- 
cal, sometimes  with  a  long  shoulder,  loose ;  pedicel  long  with  few 
warts;  brush  short,  thick,  brownish-red.  Berries  variable,  round, 
dull  black  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tender,  ad- 
herent with  purplish-red  pigment,  astringent;  flesh  greenish,  trans- 
lucent, tender,  solid,  coarse,  foxy ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  six, 
very  large. 

AUGUST  GIANT 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

August  Giant  is  a  hybrid  between  Labrusca  and  Vinifera  in 
which  the  fruit  characters  are  those  of  the  latter  species.  In 


334        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

appearance  and  taste  of  berry,  the  variety  resembles  Black 
Hamburg.  The  vine  is  usually  vigorous  and,  considering  its 
parentage,  is  very  hardy.  The  foliage  is  thick  and  luxuriant 
but  subject  to  mildew.  Vigor  of  vine,  beauty  of  foliage  and 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  make  the  variety  desirable  for  the 
amateur.  It  needs  a  long-maturing  season.  August  Giant 
was  grown  by  N.  B.  White,  Norwood,  Massachusetts,  in  1861, 
from  seed  of  an  early,  large-berried,  red  Labrusca  pollinated 
by  Black  Hamburg. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  subject  to  mildew.  Canes  long,  nu- 
merous, thick,  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes 
short ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green 
or  bronzed,  pubescent ;  lobes  three,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus 
deep,  narrow,  frequently  closed  and  overlapping ;  lateral  sinus  shallow 
or  a  notch ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  open  in  mid-season, 
self -sterile ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  of  average  size,  short,  broad, 
irregularly  tapering,  single-shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel  long,  thick 
with  large  warts ;  brush  short,  thick,  green  or  with  brown  tinge. 
Berries  large,  oval,  purplish-red  or  black,  dull  with  thick  bloom,  firm ; 
skin  tough,  adherent,  astringent;  flesh  green,  translucent,  tough, 
stringy;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  large,  blunt,  light 
brown. 

BACCHUS 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Bacchus  is  an  offspring  of  Clinton  which  it  resembles  in  vine 
and  leaf  characters,  but  surpasses  in  quality  of  fruit  and  in 
productiveness  of  vine.  The  special  points  of  merit  of  the 
variety  are :  resistance  to  cold,  resistance  to  phylloxera,  free- 
dom from  fungi  and  insects,  productiveness,  ease  of  multipli- 
cation and  capacity  to  bear  grafts.  Its  limitations  are :  poor 
quality  for  table  use,  inability  to  withstand  dry  soils  or  droughts, 
and  nonadaptability  to  soils  containing  much  lime.  The 
variety  originated  with  J.  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York, 
and  was  first  exhibited  by  him  in  1879. 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  335 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  numerous, 
dark  brown  with  bloom  at  the  nodes  which  are  enlarged  and  flattened ; 
tendrils  bifid.  Leaves  small ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  dull  green,  smooth ;  lobes  three,  terminal  one 
acuminate;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  sometimes  overlapping; 
basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  open  early, 
self-sterile ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well,  hangs  long.  Clusters  small,  slender,  uniform, 
cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender  with  a 
few  small  warts;  brush  short,  wine-colored.  Berries  small,  round, 
black,  glossy,  covered  with  thin  bloom,  hang  well  to  pedicels,  firm ; 
skin  thin,  adherent,  contains  much  wine-colored  pigment,  slightly 
astringent ;  flesh  dark  green,  translucent,  fine-grained,  tough,  vinous, 
spicy  ;  fair  quality.  Seeds  clinging,  one  to  four,  many  abortive,  large, 
short  and  wide,  plump,  sharply  pointed,  brown. 

BAKATOR 

(Vinifera) 

This  is  a  Hungarian  wine  grape  but  its  high  quality  and  early 
season  make  it  a  desirable  table-grape  in  the  East.  It  seems  to 
be  grown  but  little  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  following  descrip- 
tion is  made  from  fruit  grown  at  Geneva,  New  York : 

Vine  medium  in  vigor,  productive.  Young  leaves  tinged  red  at 
edges,  upper  surface  glossy ;  mature  leaves  large,  round,  upper  surface 
dull,  lower  surface  downy  ;  lobes  five,  terminal  lobe  acuminate  ;  basal 
sinus  deep,  medium  to  narrow,  closed  to  overlapping ;  lower  lateral 
sinus  deep,  variable  in  width;  upper  lateral  sinus  deep,  usually  nar- 
rows; margins  dentate,  teeth  shallow  to  medium  deep.  Flowers 
appear  late ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  ripens  at  Geneva  the  first  or  second  week  in  October  and 
keeps  well  in  storage ;  clusters  above  medium  in  size,  medium  in 
length,  broad,  frequently  double-shouldered,  tapering,  medium  to  loose ; 
berries  medium  to  small,  oval,  light  red  becoming  dark  when  fully 
ripe,  with  thick  bloom ;  skin  thin,  tender,  adherent  to  the  pulp ;  flesh 
greenish,  juicy,  tender,  melting,  vinous,  sweet ;  quality  very  good. 

BARRY 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Barry  (Plate  VII)  is  one  of  the  best  American  black  grapes, 
resembling  in  berry  and  in  flavor  and  keeping  quality  of  fruit  its 


336        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

European  parent,  Black  Hamburg.  The  appearance  of  berry 
and  bunch  is  attractive.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive but  susceptible  to  mildew.  The  ripening  season  is  just 
after  that  of  Concord.  For  the  table,  for  winter  keeping  and 
for  the  amateur,  this  variety  may  be  highly  recommended. 
Barry  was  dedicated  in  1869,  by  E.  S.  Rogers,  who  originated  it, 
to  Patrick  Barry,  distinguished  nurseryman  and  pomologist. 
The  variety  is  grown  in  gardens  throughout  the  grape  regions 
of  eastern  America. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive,  susceptible  to  mildew.  Canes 
long,  numerous,  thick,  dark  brown  with  heavy  bloom  ;  nodes  flattened  ; 
shoots  glabrous ;  tendrils  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ; 
upper  surface  light  green,  glossy,  smooth;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  three,  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep, 
narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping  ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking  ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  open  in  mid- 
season,  self -sterile ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  short,  very  broad,  tapering, 
often  subdividing  into  several  parts,  compact ;  pedicel  with  small 
warts.  Berries  large,  oval,  dark  jmrplish-black,  glossy,  covered  with 
heavy  bloom,  adherent ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent ;  flesh  pale  green, 
translucent,  tender,  stringy,  vinous,  pleasant-flavored ;  good.  Seeds 
adherent,  one  to  five,  large,  deeply  notched,  with  enlarged  neck, 
brown. 

BEACON 

(Lincecumii,  Labrusca) 

Another  of  T.  V.  Munson's  hybrids  is  Beacon.  It  is  not 
well  adapted  to  northern  regions  but  does  very  well  in  the 
South.  The  vine  is  vigorous  and  bears  a  handsome,  compact 
mass  of  foliage  which  retains  its  color  and  freshness  through 
drouths  and  heat.  Munson  grew  Beacon  in  1887  from  seed 
of  Big  Berry  (a  variety  of  Lincecumii)  pollinated  by  Concord, 
the  vine  bearing  first  in  1889. 

Vine  vigorous,  precariously  hardy,  productive.  Canes  short, 
slender,  light  brown.  Leaves  healthy,  thick,  dark  green,  sometimes 
rugose ;  veins  showing  indistinctly  through  the  slight  pubescence  of 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  337 

the  lower  surface.     Flowers  open  in  mid-season,  on  plan  of  five  or  six, 
self-fertile. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cylin- 
drical, usually  high-shouldered,  compact.  Berries  variable  in  size, 
round,  purplish-black,  dull  with  heavy  bloom,  firm ;  skin  tough, 
adherent  with  a  large  amount  of  purplish-red  pigment,  astringent; 
flesh  tender,  aromatic,  spicy,  vinous,  mildly  subacid ;  good.  Seeds 
free,  large,  broad,  blunt,  notched. 

BERCKMANS 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 

In  Berckmans  we  have  the  fruit  of  Delaware  on  the  vine  of 
Clinton.  The  berry  and  bunch  resemble  Delaware  in  shape ; 
the  fruit  is  of  the  same  color ;  bunch  and  berry  are  larger ;  the 
grapes  keep  longer ;  the  flesh  is  firmer  but  the  quality  is  not  so 
good,  the  flesh  lacking  tenderness  and  richness  in  comparison 
with  Delaware.  The  vine  of  Berckmans  is  not  only  more 
vigorous,  but  is  less  subject  to  mildew  than  that  of  Delaware. 
The  vine  characters  are  not,  however,  as  good  as  those  of 
Clinton.  The  variety  is  poorly  adapted  to  some  soils,  and  on 
these  the  grapes  do  not  color  well.  In  spite  of  many  good 
qualities,  Berckmans  is  but  an  amateur's  grape.  The  name 
commemorates  the  viticultural  labors  of  P.  J.  Berckmans, 
a  contemporary  and  friend  of  A.  P.  Wylie,  of  Chester,  South 
Carolina,  who  originated  the  variety.  Berckmans  came  from 
Delaware  seed  fertilized  by  Clinton,  the  seed  having  been  sown 
in  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  slender, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  prominent,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  shoots 
glabrous ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  small,  thin ; 
upper  surface  light  green,  smooth  ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  glabrous ; 
lobes  one  to  three,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide ; 
basal  sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow.  Flowers  open 
early,  self-fertile  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  ripens  with  Delaware.  Clusters  shouldered,  compact, 
slender ;  pedicel  long,  slender  with  few  warts ;  brush  short,  light  green. 
Berries  small,  oval,  Delaware-red,  darker  when  well  ripened,  covered 
z 


338        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

with  thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ; 
flesh  pale  yellowish-green,  translucent,  fine-grained,  tender,  melting, 
vinous,  sweet,  sprightly ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  small, 
broad,  blunt,  brown. 

BLACK  EAGLE 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  fruit  of  Black  Eagle  is  of  the  best,  but  the  vine  lacks  in 
vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness  and  is  self-sterile.  Bunch 
and  berry  are  large  and  attractive.  The  season  is  about  with 
Concord.  Black  Eagle  has  wholly  failed  as  a  commercial 
variety,  and  its  several  weaknesses  prevent  amateurs  from 
growing  it  widely.  The  variety  originated  with  Stephen  W. 
Underbill,  Croton-on-Hudson,  New  York,  from  seed  of  Con- 
cord pollinated  by  Black  Prince.  It  fruited  first  in  1866. 

Vine  vigorous,  precariously  hardy,  unproductive.  Canes  rough, 
thick,  reddish-brown  with  light  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened 
internodes  long;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
thick  ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth  to  rugose  ;  lobes  five  ; 
terminal  lobe  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  deep  ;  lateral  sinus  wide,  narrowing 
towards  top,  deep.  Flowers  open  in  mid-season,  self-sterile  ;  stamens 
reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  tapering,  single- 
or  double-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  slender  with  few  warts ; 
brush  short,  pale  green.  Berries  variable  in  size,  oval,  black,  glossy 
with  thick  bloom ;  skin  tender,  thin,  adherent  with  wine-colored  pig- 
ment ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  tender,  vinous  ;  good.  Seeds  free, 
one  to  four,  large. 

BLACK  HAMBURG 

(Vinifera) 

Black  Hamburg  (Plate  VI)  is  an  old  European  sort,  long  the 
mainstay  in  forcing-houses  in  Belgium,  England  and  America 
and  now  popular  out  of  doors  in  California.  It  is  an  excellent 
table-grape  but,  while  it  keeps  well,  its  tender  skin  does  not 
permit  its  being  shipped  far,  especially  when  grown  out  of  doors. 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  339 

The  vine  is  subject  to  disease.     The  following  description  of 
the  fruit  is  made  from  grapes  grown  in  the  greenhouse : 

Bunches  very  large,  often  a  foot  in  length  and  weighing  several 
pounds  ;  very  broad  at  the  shoulder  and  gradually  tapering  to  a  point ; 
compact,  oftentimes  too  compact ;  berries  very  large,  round  or  slightly 
round-oval ;  skin  rather  thick ;  dark  purple  becoming  black  at  full 
maturity  ;  flesh  firm,  juicy,  sweet  and  rich  ;  quality  very  good  or  best. 
Season  early  in  the  forcing-house  but  rather  late  out  of  doors. 

.BLACK  MALVOISE 

(Vinifera) 

This  variety  is  rather  widely  grown  in  California  as  an  early 
table-grape  and  might  be  worth  trying  in  eastern  grape  regions. 
While  the  fruit  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  it  is  good.  The  fol- 
lowing description  is  compiled : 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive ;  wood  long- jointed,  rather 
slender,  light  brown.  Leaves  of  medium  size,  oval,  evenly  and  deeply 
five-lobed  ;  basal  sinus  open,  with  nearly  parallel  sides  ;  upper  surface 
smooth,  almost  glabrous  ;  lower  surface  slightly  tomentoseon  the  veins 
and  veinlets.  Bunches  large,  loose,  branching ;  berries  large,  oblong, 
reddish  black  with  faint  bloom  ;  flesh  firm,  juicy,  crisp  ;  flavor  lacking 
in  richness  and  character ;  quality  not  high.  Season  early,  keeping 
and  shipping  but  poorly. 

BLACK  MOROCCO 

(Vinifera) 

Black  Morocco  very  generally  meets  the  approval  of  grape- 
growers  on  the  Pacific  slope  without  being  a  prime  favorite 
for  either  home  use  or  commerce.  The*  grapes  are  not  high 
enough  in  quality  for  a  home  vineyard,  and,  while  they  ship 
well,  are  hard  to  handle  because  of  the  large  size  and  rigidity 
of  the  bunches.  Another  fault  is  that  the  vines  are  subject 
to  root-knot.  The  chief  asset  of  the  variety  is  handsome 
appearance  of  fruit.  This  variety  is  remarkable  for  the  num- 


340         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ber  of  second-crop  bunches  which  it  produces  on  the  laterals. 
The  following  description  is  compiled : 

Vine  very  vigorous,  productive  ;  canes  spreading,  few.  Leaves  me- 
dium to  small,  very  deeply  five-lobed  ;  the  younger  leaves  truncate  at 
base,  giving  them  a  semi-circular  outline,  with  long,  sharp  teeth  alter- 
nating with  very  small  ones ;  glabrous,  or  nearly  so,  on  both  sides. 
Bunches  very  large,  short,  shouldered,  compact  and  rigid  ;  berries  very 
large,  round,  often  misshapen  from  compression ;  dull  purple,  lacking 
color  in  the  center  of  the  bunch ;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  neutral  in  flavor, 
lacking  in  richness ;  quality  rather  low.  Season  late,  keeping  and 
shipping  well. 

BRIGHTON 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Brighton  (Plate  VIII)  is  one  of  the  few  Labrusca- Vinifera 
hybrids  which  have  attained  prominence  in  commercial  vine- 
yards. It  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading  amateur  grapes  in  east- 
ern America  and  is  among  the  ten  or  twelve  chief  commercial 
sorts  of  this  region.  Its  good  points  are :  for  the  fruit,  high 
quality ;  for  the  vine,  vigorous  growth,  productiveness,  adapta- 
bility to  various  soils  and  ability  to  withstand  fungi.  Brighton 
has  two  serious  defects  which  keep  it  from  taking  higher  rank 
as  a  commercial  variety :  it  deteriorates  in  quality  very  quickly 
after  maturity,  so  that  it  cannot  be  kept  for  more  than  a  few 
days  at  its  best,  hence  cannot  well  be  shipped  to  distant 
markets ;  and  it  is  self-sterile  to  a  more  marked  degree  than 
any  other  commonly-grown  grape.  Brighton  is  a  seedling  of 
Diana  Hamburg  pollinated  by  Concord,  raised  by  Jacob 
Moore,  Brighton,  New  York.  The  original  vine  fruited  first 
in  1870. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive,  subject  to  mildew.  Canes  long, 
numerous,  light  brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  usually  flattened  ;  internodes 
long ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper 
surface  dark  green,  dull,  smooth  ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ; 
lobes  three  when  present,  terminal  one  acute;  petiolar  sinus  inter- 


PLATE  XXIV.  —  Moore  Early  (Xf). 


VARIETIES   OF  GRAPES  341 

mediate  in  depth  and  width ;    lateral  sinus  shallow ;    teeth  narrow. 
Flowers  open  late,  self-sterile  ;   stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering,  heavily 
shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel  thick ;  brush  pale  green  with  brown  tinge, 
thick,  short.  Berries  irregular,  large,  oval,  light  red,  glossy  with  heavy 
bloom,  persistent,  soft;  skin  thick,  tender,  adherent,  astringent; 
flesh  green,  transparent,  tender,  stringy,  melting,  aromatic,  vinous, 
sweet ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  broad,  light  brown. 

BRILLIANT 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera,  Bourquiniana) 

Brilliant  is  a  cross  between  Lindley  and  Delaware.  In 
cluster  and  size  of  berry  it  resembles  Lindley;  in  color  and 
quality  of  fruit  it  is  about  the  same  as  Delaware,  differing  chiefly 
in  having  more  astringency  in  the  skin.  Its  season  is  about 
with  Delaware.  The  grapes  do  not  crack  or  shell,  therefore 
ship  well,  and  have  very  good  keeping  qualities,  especially 
on  the  vine  where  they  often  hang  for  weeks.  The  vine  is 
vigorous  and  hardy.  The  defects  which  have  kept  Brilliant 
from  becoming  one  of  the  standard  commercial  sorts  are: 
marked  susceptibility  to  fungi,  variability  in  size  of  cluster, 
unevenness  in  ripening  and  unproductiveness.  In  favorable 
situations  this  variety  pleases  the  amateur,  and  the  commercial 
grower  often  finds  it  profitable.  The  seed  which  produced 
Brilliant  was  planted  by  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Texas,  in 
1883  and  the  variety  was  introduced  in  1887. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  rather  unproductive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
thick,  dark  brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  long ;  ten- 
drils intermittent,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick;  upper  surface 
dark  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  gray-green,  downy ;  obscurely 
three-lobed  with  terminal  lobe  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ; 
basal  and  lateral  sinuses  obscure  and  shallow  when  present ;  teeth 
intermediate  in  depth  and  width.  Flowers  open  late,  self -fertile ; 
stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium,  blunt, 
cylindrical,  usually  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick  with  a 
few  small  warts;  brush  short,  thick,  pale  green  with  reddish  tinge. 


342        MANUAL   OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Berries  round,  dark  red,  glossy  with  thin  bloom,  strongly  adherent, 
firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent ;  flesh  pale  green,  transparent,  juicy, 
stringy,  fine-grained,  vinous,  sweet;  good.  Seeds  clinging,  one  to 
four,  large,  broad,  elongated,  plump,  light  brown. 

BROWN 

(Labrusca) 

In  spite  of  many  encomiums  in  the  past  quarter  century, 
Brown  has  not  received  favorable  recognition  from  fruit-grow- 
ers. The  quality  is  not  high,  the  berries  shatter  badly,  and  the 
vine  is  lacking  in  vigor.  Brown  is  a  seedling  of  Isabella  which 
came  up  in  a  yard  at  Newburgh,  New  York,  about  1884. 

Vine  hardy,  productive.  Canes  short,  slender,  dark  brown ;  tendrils 
continuous.  Leaves  healthy,  light  green,  glossy  ;  veins  well  defined, 
distinctly  showing  through  the  thick  bronze  of  the  lower  surface. 
Flowers  open  early,  self-fertile  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  large,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small  to  medium,  slender,  cylin- 
drical or  tapering,  usually  single-shouldered.  Berries  intermediate 
in  size,  oval,  black  with  thick  bloom,  drop  soon  after  ripening ;  skin 
adherent ;  flesh  juicy,  tough,  fine-grained,  a  little  foxy,  mild  next  the 
skin  but  tart  at  center ;  good.  Seeds  short,  blunt,  light  brown. 

CAMPBELL  EARLY 

• 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  meritorious  qualities  of  Campbell  Early  (Plate  IX)  are  : 
The  grapes  are  high  in  quality  when  mature ;  free  from  foxiness 
and  from  acidity  about  the  seeds;  have  small  seeds  which 
easily  part  from  the  flesh;  are  early,  ripening  nearly  a  fort- 
night before  Concord ;  bunch  and  berry  are  large  and  handsome ; 
and  the  vines  are  exceptionally  hardy.  Campbell  Early  falls 
short  in  not  being  adapted  to  many  soils ;  the  variety  lacks 
productiveness;  the  grapes  attain  full  color  before  they  are 
ripe  and  are,  therefore,  often  marketed  in  an  unripe  condition ; 
the  bunch  is  variable  in  size ;  and  the  color  of  the  berry  is  not 
attractive.  George  W.  Campbell,  Delaware,  Ohio,  grew  this 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  343 

variety  from  a  seedling  of  Moore  Early  pollinated  by  a  Labrusca- 
Vinifera  hybrid.     It  bore  first  in  1892. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  thick,  dark  reddish- 
brown,  surface  roughened  with  small  warts ;  nodes  flattened ;  inter- 
nodes  short ;  shoots  pubescent ;  tendrils  intermittent,  short,  bifid  or 
trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  green,  glossy ;  lower 
surface  bronze,  heavily  pubescent;  lobes  three,  usually  entire,  ter- 
minal one  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide  ;  basal  sinus  pubescent ; 
lateral  sinus  wide  or  a  notch ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self- 
fertile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  usually  large,  long, 
broad,  tapering,  single-shouldered;  pedicel  short,  slender  with  small 
warts;  brush  long,  light  wine  color.  Berries  usually  large,  round, 
oval,  dark  purplish-black,  dull  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm: 
skin  tough,  thin,  adherent  with  dark  red  pigment,  astringent;  flesh 
green,  translucent,  juicy,  coarse,  vinous,  sweet  from  skin  to  center ; 
good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  light  brown,  often  with  yellow  tips. 

CANADA 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Canada  is  considered  the  most  desirable  hybrid  between 
Vulpina  and  Vinifera.  The  variety  shows  Vinifera  more  than 
Vulpina  parentage ;  thus,  in  susceptibility  to  fungal  diseases, 
in  shape,  color  and  texture  of  foliage,  in  the  flavor  of  the  fruit 
and  in  the  seeds,  there  are  marked  indications  of  Vinifera; 
while  the  vine,  especially  in  the  slenderness  of  its  shoots  and 
in  the  bunch  and  berry,  shows  Vulpina.  Canada  has  little 
value  as  a  dessert  fruit  but  makes  a  very  good  red  wine  or 
grape-juice.  Canada  is  a  seedling  of  Clinton,  a  Labrusca- 
Vulpina  hybrid,  fertilized  by  Black  St.  Peters,  a  variety  of 
Vinifera.  Charles  Arnold,  Paris,  Ontario,  planted  the  seed 
which  produced  Canada  in  1860. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
slender,  ash-gray,  reddish-brown  at  nodes  with  heavy  bloom ;  nodes 
enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  short,  trifid  or 
bifid.  Leaves  thin ;  upper  surface  light  green,  smooth ;  lower  surface 
pale  green,  hairy ;  terminal  lobe  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ; 


344        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

basal  sinus  variable  in  depth  and  width  ;  lateral  sinus  deep  and  narrow ; 
teeth  deep  and  wide.     Flowers  self-sterile,  early  ;    stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  long,  slender,  uniform, 
cylindrical,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  slender,  smooth  ;  brush  short,  light 
brown.  Berries  small,  round,  purplish-black,  glossy  with  heavy 
bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent ;  flesh  dark  green, 
very  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  spicy,  pleasant  vinous  flavor,  agreeably 
tart ;  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  blunt,  light  brown. 

CANANDAIGUA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Canandaigua  is  worth  attention  because  of  the  exceptionally 
good  keeping  qualities  of  the  grapes.  The  flavor  is  very  good 
at  picking  time  but  seems,  if  anything,  to  improve  in  storage. 
The  vine  characters  are  those  of  Labrusca-Vinifera  hybrids, 
and  in  these  the  variety  is  the  equal  of  the  average  cultivated 
hybrid  of  these  two  species.  The  characters  of  the  fruit,  also, 
show  plainly  an  admixture  of  Vinifera  and  Labrusca  so  com- 
bined as  to  make  the  grapes  very  similar  to  the  best  of  such 
hybrids.  Canandaigua  is  a  chance  seedling  found  by  E.  L. 
Van  Wormer,  Canandaigua,  New  York,  growing  among  wild 
grapes.  It  was  distributed  about  1897. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  few, 
reddish-brown,  faint  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils  semi- 
continuous,  bifid,  dehisce  early.  Leaves  large,  thin ;  upper  surface 
light  green ;  lower  surface  gray-green.  Flowers  sterile  or  sometimes 
partly  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  keeps  unusually  well.  Clusters  variable 
in  size,  usually  heavily  single-shouldered,  loose  to  medium.  Berries 
large,  oval,  black,  covered  with  thick  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  adher- 
ent, thin,  tough ;  flesh  firm,  sweet  and  rich ;  good,  improves  as  season 
advances.  Seeds  long  with  enlarged  neck. 

CARMAN 
(Lincecumii,  Vinifera,  Labrusca) 

Carman  is  a  grape  having  the  characters  of  three  species 
and  hence  is  of  interest  to  grape  improvers.  It  has  not  become 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  345 

popular  with  growers,  chiefly  because  the  grapes  ripen  very 
late  and  are  not  of  high  quality.  The  most  valuable  character 
of  the  variety  is  that  of  long  keeping,  whether  hanging  on  the 
vine  or  after  harvesting.  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Texas, 
raised  Carman  from  seed  of  a  wild  post-oak  grape  taken  from 
the  woods,  pollinated  with  mixed  pollen  of  Triumph  and  Herbe- 
mont.  It  was  introduced  in  1892. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  rather  productive.  Canes  long,  nu- 
merous, thick,-  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes 
long ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper 
surface  light  green,  glossy,  older  leaves  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale 
green,  pubescent ;  terminal  lobe  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep ;  basal 
sinus  absent  or  shallow ;  lateral  sinus  shallow  when  present.  Flowers 
self -fertile  or  nearly  so,  open  very  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size,  tapering,  single- 
shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  smooth ;  brush  short, 
slender,  wine-colored.  Berries  small,  round,  slightly  oblate,  purplish- 
black,  glossy,  covered  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin, 
tough,  free ;  flesh  yellowish-green,  tender,  post-oak  flavor,  vinous, 
spicy;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  small,  blunt, 
brown. 

CATAWBA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Arkansas,  Catawba  Tokay,  Cherokee,  Panther,  Keller 's  White, 
Lebanon,  Lincoln,  Mammoth  Catawba,  Mead's  Seedling, 
Merceron,  Michigan,  Muncy,  Omega,  Rose  of  Tennessee, 
Saratoga,  Singleton,  Tekomah,  Tokay,  Virginia  Amber. 

Catawba  has  long  been  the  standard  red  grape  in  the  markets 
of  eastern  America,  chiefly  because  the  fruit  keeps  well  and  is 
of  high  quality.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  fyardy  and  productive, 
but  the  foliage  and  fruit  are  susceptible  to  fungi.  These  two 
faults  account  for  the  decline  of  Catawba  in  grape  regions  in 
the  United  States  and  for  its  growing  unpopularity.  In  botani- 
cal characters  and  in  adaptations  and  susceptibilities,  the  variety 
suggests  Vinifera  crossed  with  Labrusca.  The  characters  of 


346        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Catawba  seem  readily  transmissible  to  its  offspring  and,  besides 
having  a  number  of  pure-bred  descendants  which  more  or  less 
resemble  it,  it  is  a  parent  of  a  still  greater  number  of  cross- 
breeds. As  with  Catawba,  most  of  its  progeny  show  Vinifera 
characters,  as  intermittent  tendrils,  Vinifera  color  of  foliage, 
a  vinous  flavor  wholly  or  nearly  free  from  foxiness,  and  the 
susceptibilities  of  Labrusca-Vinifera  hybrids  to  certain  diseases 
and  insects.  Catawba  w^as  introduced  by  John  Adlum,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  about  1823.  Adlum  secured  cuttings  from 
a  Mrs.  Scholl,  Clarksburgh,  Montgomery  County,  Maryland, 
in  the  spring  of  1819.  Its  further  history  is  not  known. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  numerous,  thick,  dark 
brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  grayish- 
white,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  sometimes  three,  terminal  one  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow;  basal  sinus  often  lacking;  lateral  sinus 
narrow;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  late, 
stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering,  single- 
or  sometimes  double-shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel  with  a  few  incon- 
spicuous warts ;  brush  short,  pale  green.  Berries  of  medium  size, 
oval,  dull  purplish-red  with  thick  bloom,  firm ;  skin  thick,  adherent, 
astringent ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  vinous, 
sprightly,  sweet  and  rich ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  frequently  abortive, 
two,  broad-necked,  distinctly  notched,  blunt,  brown. 

CHAMPION 

(Labrusca) 
Beaconsfield,  Early  Champion,  Taiwan's  Seedling 

Champion  is  a  favorite  early  grape  with  some  growers,  al- 
though the  poor  quality  of  the  fruit  should  have  driven  it  from 
cultivation  long  ago.  The  characters  which  have  kept  it  in 
the  market  are  earliness,  good  shipping  qualities,  attractive 
appearance  of  fruit,  and  a  vigorous,  productive,  hardy  vine. 
The  hardiness  of  the  vine  and  the  short  season  of  fruit  develop- 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  347 

ment  make  it  a  good  variety  for  northern  climates.  This 
grape  is  best  in  appearance  of  fruit,  in  quality  and  in  the  quan- 
tity produced,  on  light  sandy  soils.  The  origin  of  Champion 
is  unknown.  It  was  first  grown  about  1870  in  New  York. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  Canes  of  average  size, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  shoots 
pubescent ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  sur- 
face dark  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  dull  gray,  downy ;  lobes 
usually  three,  often  obscurely  five,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus 
deep  ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self-fertile,  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  three  weeks  before  Concord,  season  short.  Clusters 
medium  in  size,  blunt,  cylindrical,  usually  not  shouldered,  compact; 
pedicel  short  with  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  white  tinged  with 
bronze.  Berries  medium  in  size,  round,  dull  black  covered  with  heavy 
bloom,  soft ;  skin  thick,  tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  light  green, 
translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  foxy ;  poor  in  quality.  Seeds 
adherent,  one  to  five,  broad,  long,  blunt,  light  brown. 

CHASSELAS  GOLDEN 

(Vinifera) 
Chasselas  Dore,  Fontainebleau,  Siveelivater 

Several  qualities  have  made  Chasselas  Golden  a  favorite 
grape  wherever  it  can  be  grown.  The  variety  is  adapted  to 
widely  differing  environments ;  the  season  of  ripening  is  early ; 
while  not  choicely  high,  the  quality  of  the  grapes  is  good  and 
they  are  beautiful,  clear  green  tinged  with  beautiful  golden 
bronze  where  exposed  to  the  sun.  Chasselas  Golden  is  a 
popular  variety  on  the  Pacific  slope  and  should  be  one  of  the 
first  Viniferas  to  be  tried  in  the  East.  The  following  descrip- 
tion was  made  from  fruit  grown  at  Geneva,  New  York : 

Vine  medium  in  vigor,  very  productive;  buds  open  in  mid-season. 
Young  leaves  tinged  with  red  on  both  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  thinly 
pubescent  to  glabrous ;  mature  leaves  medium  to  above  in  size, 
slightly  cordate ;  upper  surface  glabrous,  lower  surface  slightly  pubes- 
cent along  the  veins ;  lobes  five  in  number,  terminal  lobe  acuminate ; 


348        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

basal  sinus  broad  and  rather  deep  ;  lower  lateral  sinus  variable,  usually 
broad  and  sometimes  deep  ;  upper  lateral  sinus  broad  and  frequently 
deep  :  teeth  large,  obtuse  to  rounded.  Flowers  late  ;  stamens  upright. 
Fruit  ripens  early  and  keeps  well  in  storage ;  clusters  large,  long, 
broad,  tapering,  sometimes  with  a  single  shoulder,  compactness  me- 
dium ;  berries  medium  to  above,  slightly  oval,  pale  green  to  clear 
yellow,  with  thin  bloom ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  slightly  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  greenish,  translucent,  firm,  juicy,  tender,  sweet ;  good. 

CHASSELAS  ROSE 

(Vinifera) 

Chasselas  Rose  is  very  similar  to  Chasselas  Golden,  differing 
chiefly  in  smaller  bunch  and  berry  and  slightly  different  flavor 
which  is  possibly  better.  It  is  a  standard  sort  in  California 
and  should  be  planted  in  the  East  where  the  culture  of  Viniferas 
is  attempted.  The  description  is  made  from  fruit  grown  at 
Geneva,  New  York : 

Vine  of  medium  vigor,  productive.  Opening  leaves  tinged  with 
red  on  both  surfaces,  mature  leaves  small,  round ;  upper  surface 
medium  green,  somewhat  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  glabrous ; 
lobes  three;  basal  sinus  medium  in  depth  and  of  variable  width; 
lateral  sinus  deep,  narrow;  teeth  shallow,  wide,  dentate.  Flowers 
appear  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  ripens  the  second  week  in  October  and  is  a  good  keeper  though 
it  loses  its  flavor  in  storage ;  clusters  above  and  below  medium,  long, 
tapering  to  cylindrical,  compact ;  berries  medium  in  size,  roundish-oval, 
light  red  changed  to  violet-red  by  the  bloom ;  skin  thin,  astringent, 
juicy,  tender,  sweet,  mild ;  quality  good. 

CHAUTAUQUA 

(Labrusca) 

In  appearance  of  fruit,  Chautauqua  is  very  similar  to  Concord, 
its  parent,  but  the  grapes  ripen  a  few  days  earlier  and  are  of 
better  quality,  although  they  do  not  differ  in  these  respects 
sufficiently  to  make  the  variety  much  more  than  an  easily 
recognized  strain  of  Concord.  Chautauqua  is  a  volunteer 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  349 

seedling  of  Concord,  found  near  Brocton,  New  York,  by  H.  T. 
Bashtite  about  1890. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  unproductive.  Canes  long,  thick, 
cylindrical ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  continuous,  trifid.  Leaves 
large,  irregularly  round,  dark  green  ;  upper  surface  dark  green ;  lower 
surface  tinged  with  bronze  ;  leaf  entire  or  faintly  three-lobed.  Flowers 
semi-fertile,  open  in  mid-season  or  earlier ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early  in  mid-season.  Clusters  medium  to  large,  broad, 
sometimes  single-shouldered,  compact.  Berries  large,  round  or  slightly 
oval,  purplish-black  with  abundant  bloom,  shatter  badly ;  skin  thin, 
very  astringent ;  flesh  tough,  vinous,  sweet  at  skin,  acid  at  center ; 
good  to  very  good.  Seeds  few,  free,  broad,  plump. 


CLEVENER 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

This  variety  has  long  been  grown  in  New  Jersey  and  New 
York,  and  in  both  states  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  wine-grape. 
The  fruit  is  remarkable  in  coloring  very  early  and  in  ripening 
late.  The  vine  is  hardy,  very  vigorous,  succeeds  in  various 
soils,  and  since  it  bears  grafts  well  is  an  excellent  sort  upon  which 
to  graft  varieties  not  thriving  on  their  own  roots.  Clevener  is 
self-sterile  and  must  be  planted  with  some  other  variety  to  set 
fruit  well.  In  spite  of  its  good  qualities,  Clevener  is  hardly 
holding  its  own  in  commercial  vineyards,  and  it  is  not  a  desir- 
able fruit  for  the  amateur  who  wants  a  table-grape.  Clevener 
has  been  raised  in  the  vicinity  of  Egg  Harbor,  New  Jersey, 
since  about  1870,  but  its  place  and  time  of  origin  are  unknown. 

Vine  a  rampant  grower,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
thick,  dark  reddish-brown  with  heavy  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  unusually  large,  *  dark  green  with  well- 
defined  ribs  showing  through  the  thin  pubescence  of  the  under  surface ; 
lobes  wanting  or  faint ;  teeth  deep,  wide.  Flowers  self -sterile,  open 
very  early  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  do  not  always  fill  well,  small, 
short,  slender,  irregularly  tapering,  often  with  a  'single  shoulder. 
Berries  small,  round  or  slightly  flattened,  black,  glossy,  covered  with 


350        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  thin,  inclined  to  crack, 
adherent  with  much  purplish-red  pigment ;  flesh  reddish-green,  juicy, 
tender,  soft,  fine-grained,  aromatic,  spicy  ;  good.  Seeds  free,  notched, 
sharp-pointed,  dark  brown. 


CLINTON 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 
Worthington 

Clinton  (Plate  X)  came  into  prominence  because  of  vigor, 
hardiness,  fruitfulness  and  immunity  to  phylloxera.  A  serious 
defect  is  that  the  vines  bloom  so  early  that  the  blossoms  are  often 
caught  by  late  frosts  in  northern  climates.  Other  defects  are : 
the  fruit  is  small  and  sour,  and  the  seeds  and  skins  prominent. 
The  fruit  colors  early  in  the  season  but  does  not  ripen  until 
late,  a  slight  touch  of  frost  improving  the  flavor.  Clinton 
bears  grafts  well,  making  a  quick  and  firm  union  with  Labrusca 
and  Vinifera,  and  the  vines  are  easily  propagated  from  cuttings. 
This  variety  has  been  used  widely  in  grape-breeding,  and  its 
blood  can  be  traced  in  many  valuable  varieties.  The  offspring 
of  Clinton  are  usually  very  hardy,  and  this,  taken  with  its  other 
desirable  characters,  makes  it  an  exceptionally  good  starting- 
point  for  breeding  grapes  for  northern  latitudes.  Clinton  is  an 
old  sort,  the  Worthington,  known  as  early  as  1815,  renamed ; 
it  began  to  attract  attention  about  1840. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
slender,  reddish-brown;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  shoots  smooth; 
tendrils  intermittent,  sometimes  continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  hang  until 
late  in  the  season,  small,  thin ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  smooth ; 
lower  surface  pale  green,  glabrous ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  urn- 
shaped  ;  basal  and  lateral  sinuses  shallow ;  teeth  wide.  Flowers  self- 
fertile,  open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season.  Clusters  small,  slender,  cylindrical,  uniform, 
single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  very  slender,  smooth ; 
brush  tinged  with  red.  Berries  small,  round,  oval,  purplish-black, 
glossy,  covered  with  thick  bloom,  adherent,  firm ;  skin  very  thin, 


PLATE  XXV.  —  Muscat  Hamburg  (Xf). 


VARIETIES    Of-    CRAPES  351 

tough,  free  from  pulp  with  much  wine-colored  pigment,  astringent; 
flesh  dark  green,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tough,  solid,  spicy,  sour,  vinous. 

Seeds;  adherent,  two,  short,  blunt,  brownish. 

COLERAIX 
(Labrusca) 

This  is  one  of  the  numerous  white  seedlings  of  Concord  and 
one  of  the  few  with  sufficient  merit  to  be  kept  in  cultivation. 
The  vine  has  the  characteristic  foliage  and  habit  of  growth  of  its 
parent,  but  the  fruit  is  earlier  by  a  week,  is  of  much  higher 
quality  and  lacks  the  foxiness  of  most  Labruscas.  The  grapes 
are  sprightly  and  vinous,  and  neither  seeds  nor  skin  are  as 
objectionable  as  in  the  parent.  The  fruit  hangs  to  the  vine 
and  keeps  well,  but  owing  to  tender  pulp  does  not  ship  well, 
The  variety  is  unproductive  in  some  localities.  Colerain  is 
worthy  a  place  in  home  vineyards.  David  Bundy,  Colerain, 
Ohio,  grew  this  variety  from  seed  of  Concord  planted  in  1880. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  unproductive.  Canes  slender, 
dark  reddish-brown  ;  nodes  flattened ;  internodes  short,  bifid.  Leaves 
thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  bronze, 
downy ;  leaf  not  lobed,  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  wide ;  basal  and 
lateral  sinus  very  shallow  when  present ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self- 
fertile,  opening  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  medium  in  size  and  length,  slender,  blunt, 
tapering,  irregular,  strongly  shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  slender, 
smooth;  brush  green.  Berries  round,  light  green,  glossy  with  thin 
bloom,  persistent ;  skin  unusually  thin,  tender,  adherent,  unpig- 
mented,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained, 
tender,  soft,  vinous,  sweet;  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  small, 
broad,  notched,  short,  plump,  brown. 

COLUMBIAN  IMPERIAJ* 
(Labrusca,  Vulpina) 
Columbian,  Jumbo 

Columbian  Imperial  Is  a  Labnisca-Vulpina  hybrid  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  great  size  of  its  reddish-black  berries,  al- 


352        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

though  the  vine  is  so  exceptionally  healthy  and  vigorous  as  to 
give  it  prominence  for  these  characters  as  well.  The  variety 
has  remarkably  thick  leathery  leaves  which  seem  almost  proof 
against  either  insects  or  fungi.  The  quality  of  the  fruit,  how- 
ever, is  inferior,  and  the  small  clusters  vary  in  number  of 
berries  and  these  shell  easily.  The  only  value  of  the  variety 
is  for  exhibition  purposes  and  for  breeding  to  secure  the  desirable 
characters  named.  The  parentage  of  Columbian  Imperial  is 
unknown.  It  originated  with  J.  S.  McKinley,  Orient,  Ohio, 
in  1885. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  unproductive.  Canes  long,  nu- 
merous, thick,  dark  reddish-brown,  heavily  pubescent,  spiny ;  nodes 
prominent ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid.  Leaves 
green,  very  thick ;  lower  surface  pale  green  shading  into  bronze  on 
older  leaves  with  little  pubescence ;  lobes  three,  indistinct ;  teeth 
sharp,  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  sometimes  shouldered ; 
peduncle  slender ;  pedicel  long ;  brush  long,  slender,  green.  Berries 
very  large,  round,  slightly  oval,  dull  reddish-black  with  faint  bloom, 
firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  unpigmented ;  flesh  juicy,  tough,  sweet  at 
the  skin  but  acid  at  center ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  large, 
plump,  broad,  blunt. 

CONCORD 

(Labrusca) 

Concord  (Plate  XI)  is  the  most  widely  known  of  the  grapes  of 
this  continent,  and  with  its  offspring,  pure-bred  and  cross-bred, 
furnishes  75  per  cent  of  the  grapes  of  eastern  America.  The 
preeminently  meritorious  character  of  Concord  is  that  it 
adapts  itself  to  varying  conditions ;  thus,  Concord  is  grown 
with  profit  in  every  grape-growing  state  in  the  Union  and  to  an 
extent  not  possible  with  any  other  variety.  A  second  character 
which  commends  Concord  is  fruitfulness  —  the  vine  bears 
large  crops  year  in  and  year  out.  Added  to  these  points  of 
superiority,  are :  hardiness ;  ability  to  withstand  the  ravages 
of  diseases  and  insects;  comparative  earliness;  certainty  of 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  353 

maturity  in  northern  regions ;  and  fair  size  and  handsome 
appearance  of  bunch  and  berry.  Concord  also  blossoms  late 
in  the  spring  and  does  not  suffer  often  from  spring  frosts,  nor  is 
the  fruit  often  injured  by  late  frosts.  The  crop  hangs  well  on 
the  vine. 

The  variety  is  not,  however,  without  faults :  the  quality  is 
not  high,  the  grapes  lacking  richness,  delicacy  of  flavor  and 
aroma,  and  having  a  foxy  taste  disagreeable  to  many ;  the  seeds 
and  skin  are  objectionable,  the  seeds  being  large  and  abundant 
and  difficult  to  separate  from  the  flesh,  and  the  skin  being 
tough  and  unpleasantly  astringent ;  the  grapes  do  not  keep  nor 
ship  well  and  rapidly  lose  flavor  after  ripening ;  the  skin  cracks 
and  the  berries  shell  from  the  stems  after  picking ;  and  the 
vine  is  but  slightly  resistant  to  phylloxera.  While  Concord  is 
grown  in  the  South,  it  is  essentially  a  northern  grape,  becoming 
susceptible  to  fungi  in  southern  climates  and  suffering  from 
phylloxera  in  dry,  warm  soils. 

The  botanical  characters  of  Concord  indicate  that  it  is  a  pure- 
bred Labrusca.  Seeds  of  a  wild  grape  were  planted  in  the  fall  of 
1843  by  E.  W.  Bull,  Concord,  Massachusetts,  plants  from  which 
fruited  in  1849.  One  of  these  seedlings  was  named  Concord. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  thick, 
dark  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  long ; 
shoots  pubescent ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid,  sometimes  trifid. 
Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower 
surface  light  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  three  when  present, 
terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  variable ;  basal  sinus  usually  lack- 
ing; lateral  sinus  obscure  and  frequently  notched;  teeth  shallow, 
narrow.  Flowers  self-fertile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  from  one  to  twT>  months.  Clusters  uniform, 
large,  wide,  broadly  tapering,  usually  single-shouldered,  sometimes 
double-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  thick,  smooth ;  brush  pale 
green.  Berries  large,  round,  glossy,  black  with  heavy  bloom,  firm ; 
skin  tough,  adherent  with  a  small  amount  of  wine-colored  pigment, 
astringent;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tough, 
solid,  foxy  ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  large,  broad,  distinctly 
notched,  plump,  blunt,  brownish. 

2A 


354        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

COTTAGE 

(Labrusca) 

In  vine  and  fruit,  Cottage  resembles  its  parent,  Concord, 
having,  however,  remarkably  large,  thick,  leathery  leaves.  It 
is  noted  also  for  its  strong,  branching  root  system  and  canes  so 
rough  as  to  be  almost  spiny.  The  fruit  is  better  in  quality  than 
that  of  its  parent,  having  less  foxiness  and  a  richer,  more  delicate 
flavor.  The  crop  ripens  from  one  to  two  weeks  earlier  than  Con- 
cord. The  good  qualities  of  the  variety  are  offset  by  compara- 
tive unproductiveness  and  unevenness  in  ripening.  Cottage 
is  recommended  as  an  early  grape  of  the  Concord  type  for  the 
garden.  This  variety  was  grown  from  seed  of  Concord  by  E. 
W.  Bull,  Concord,  Massachusetts.  It  was  introduced  in  1869. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy.  Canes  rough,  hairy,  long,  numerous, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  shoots  very  pubescent ;  tendrils  con- 
tinuous, bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick  ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy, 
smooth  or  rugose ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  pubescent ;  leaf 
entire  with  terminal  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep  and  wide ;  teeth 
shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  of  medium  size,  broad,  cylin- 
drical, sometimes  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick 
with  a  few  small  warts;  brush  dark  red.  Berries  of  medium  size, 
round,  dull  black  with  heavy  bloom,  drop  badly  from  pedicel,  firm ; 
skin  thick,  tender,  adherent  with  dark  purplish-red  pigment,  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  juicy,  tough,  solid,  foxy ;  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four, 
large,  broad,  blunt,  light  brown. 

CREVELING 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 
Bloom,  Bloomburg,  Catawissa,  Columbia  Bloom 

Creveling  was  long  a  favorite  black  grape  for  the  garden, 
where,  if  planted  in  good  soil,  it  produces  fine  clusters  of  large, 
handsome,  very  good  grapes.  Under  any  but  the  best  of  care, 
however,  the  vine  is  unproductive  and  sets  loose,  straggling 


VARIETIES   OF    GRAPES  355 

bunches.  The  variety  is  markedly  self-sterile.  The  origin  of 
Creveling  is  uncertain.  It  was  introduced  about  1857  by  F. 
F.  Merceron,  Catawissa,  Pennsylvania. 

Vine  vigorous,  not  hardy,  often  unproductive.  Canes  long,  nu- 
merous, thick,  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes 
long ;  shoots  glabrous ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  trifid  or  bifid. 
Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  sur- 
face pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  three,  or  obscurely  five,  terminal 
one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  closed,  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  very 
shallow ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  on 
plan  of  six,  self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  long,  broad,  irregularly 
tapering,  single-shouldered,  the  shoulder  often  connected  to  the  cluster 
by  a  long  stem,  loose ;  brush  thick,  dark  wine-color.  Berries  large, 
oval,  dull  black,  covered  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin 
thick,  tough,  adherent  with  wine-colored  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh 
pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  stringy,  tender,  coarse,  foxy ;  good. 
Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  broad,  notched,  blunt,  light  brown. 

CROTON 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 

The  fruit  of  Croton  is  a  feast  both  to  the  eye  and  to  the 
palate.  Unfortunately  the  vine  is  difficult  to  grow,  being 
adapted  to  but  few  soils  and  proving  unfruitful,  weak  in  growth, 
precariously  tender  and  subject  to  mildew  and  rot  in  unfavorable 
situations.  The  grapes  have  a  delicate,  sweet  Vinifera  flavor 
with  melting  flesh  which  readily  separates  from  the  few  seeds. 
The  crop  hangs  on  the  vines  until  frost  and  keeps  well  into  the 
winter.  In  spite  of  high  quality  of  fruit,  Croton  has  never 
become  widely  distributed,  wholly  failing  as  a  commercial 
variety.  It  originated  with  S.  W.  Underbill,  Croton  Point, 
New  York,  from  a  seed  of  Delaware  pollinated  by  a  European 
grape.  Fruits  were  first  exhibited  in  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  tender,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  thick, 
dark  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  shoots 
glabrous ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  of  medium  size, 
hang  late  ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth  ;  lower  surface  pale 


356        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

green,  pubescent ;  lobes  five,  terminal  one  blunt ;  basal  sinus  narrow ; 
lateral  sinus  deep  and  narrow ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow,  often  closed  and 
overlapping ;  teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  late ; 
stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  uniform,  very  large,  long, 
slender,  irregularly  tapering  with  heavy  shoulder,  very  loose ;  pedicel 
long,  thick  with  inconspicuous  warts  ;  brush  green.  Berries  irregular 
in  size,  round-elongated,  yellowish-green  with  thin  bloom,  persistent, 
soft ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  unpigmented ;  flesh  green,  trans- 
parent, very  juicy,  melting,  vinous,  pleasant,  agreeably  sweet;  very 
good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  elongated,  notched,  sharply  pointed. 

CUNNINGHAM 

(Bourquiniana) 
Long,  Prince  Edward 

Cunningham  is  cultivated  very  little  in  America,  but  in 
France,  at  one  time,  was  one  of  the  best-known  grapes,  both  as 
a  direct  producer  and  as  a  stock  for  European  varieties.  It  was 
much  sought  for  by  the  French  as  a  stock  for  large  Vinifera 
cions,  the  size  of  the  vine  giving  an  opportunity  for  making  a 
good  graft.  In  the  South,  where  the  variety  originated,  Cun- 
ningham is  not  largely  grown,  as  there  are  several  other  varieties 
of  its  type  superior  in  fruit  and  vine.  The  vine  is  a  capricious 
grower  and  is  particular  as  to  soil  and  climate.  The  grapes 
make  a  deep  yellow  wine  of  a  very  good  quality  but  have  little 
value  as  table-grapes.  Cunningham  originated  with  Jacob 
Cunningham,  Prince  Edward  County,  Virginia,  about  1812. 

Vine  vigorous,  spreading,  productive.  Canes  large,  long  with  stiff 
reddish  hairs  at  base ;  shoots  showing  considerable  bloom ;  tendrils 
intermittent,  usually  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick,  round,  entire  or 
lobed  ;  smooth  and  dark  green  above,  yellowish  green  below,  pubescent ; 
petiolar  sinus  narrow,  frequently  overlapping. 

Clusters  of  medium  size,  long,  sometimes  shouldered,  very  compact ; 
pedicel  long,  slender  with  small  warts;  brush  short,  light  brown. 
Berries  small,  purplish-black  with  thin  bloom ;  skin  thin,  tough  with 
much  underlying  pigment ;  flesh  tender,  juicy,  sprightly  ;  quality  poor 
or  but  fair.  Seeds  two  to  five,  oval. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  357 

CYNTHIANA 

^JEstivalis,  Labrusca) 
Arkansas,  Red  River 

There  is  controversy  as  to  whether  this  variety  differs  from 
Norton.  The  two  ripen  at  separate  times,  and  the  fruits  diifer 
a  little  so  that  they  must  be  considered  as  distinct.  Cynthi- 
ana  is  particular  as  to  soil  and  location,  preferring  sandy 
loams  and  does  not  thrive  on  clays  or  limestones.  While 
very  resistant  to  phylloxera,  this  variety  is  not  much  used  as  a 
resistant  stock  because  it  is  not  easily  propagated.  The  vines 
are  resistant  to  mildew,  black-rot,  and  anthracnose  and  are 
strong,  vigorous  growers.  The  cycle  of  vegetation  for  Cyr- 
thiana  is  long,  the  buds  bursting  forth  early  and  the  fruit 
maturing  very  late.  The  variety  has  no  value  as  a  table-grape 
but  in  the  South  is  one  of  the  best  grapes  for  red  wine.  No 
doubt  it  will  prove  one  of  the  best  southern  sorts  for  grape- 
juice.  Cynthiana  was  received  about  1850  by  Prince,  of 
Flushing,  Long  Island,  from  Arkansas,  where  it  was  found 
growing  in  the  woods. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  medium  in 
length,  numerous,  reddish-brown  with  thick  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged ; 
internodes  short ;  shoots  glabrous ;  tendrils  intermittent  or  con- 
tinuous, bifid.  Leaves  thick,  firm ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  dull, 
rugose ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  blue,  faintly  pubescent,  cobwebby ; 
lobes  variable  in  number,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep, 
narrow,  closed,  sometimes  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  shallow ;  lateral 
sinus  shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  very  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  to  small,  long, 
tapering,  often  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender, 
with  numerous  warts ;  brush  short,  thick,  wine-colored.  Berries 
small,  round,  black,  covered  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm;  skin 
thin,  tough,  adherent  with  purple  pigment,  astringent;  flesh  dark 
green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  firm,  spicy,  tart ;  poor  in  quality. 
Seeds  adherent,  one  to  six,  small,  short,  blunt,  dark  brown. 


358        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

DELAWARE 

(Labrusca,  Bourquiniana,  Vinifera) 
French  Grape,  Gray  Delaware,  Ladies9  Choice,  Powell,  Ruff 

Delaware  (Plate  VII)  is  used  wherever  American  grapes  are 
grown  as  the  standard  to  gauge  the  quality  of  other  grapes. 
Added  to  high  quality  in  fruit,  the  variety  withstands  climatic 
conditions  to  which  all  but  the  most  hardy  varieties  succumb, 
is  adapted  to  many  soils  and  conditions,  and  bears  under  most 
situations  an  abundant  crop.  These  qualities  make  it,  next  to 
Concord,  the  most  popular  grape  for  garden  and  vineyard  now 
grown  in  the  United  States.  Besides  the  qualities  named,  the 
grapes  mature  sufficiently  early  to  make  the  crop  certain,  are 
attractive  in  appearance,  keep  and  ship  well  and  are  more  im- 
mune than  other  commercial  varieties  to  black-rot.  Faults  of 
the  variety  are  :  small  vine,  slow  growth,  susceptibility  to  mil- 
dew, capriciousness  in  certain  soils  and  small  berries.  The  first 
two  faults  make  it  necessary  to  plant  the  vines  more  closely 
than  those  of  other  commercial  varieties.  Delaware  succeeds 
best  in  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  warm  soils,  but  even  on  these 
it  must  have  good  cultivation,  close  pruning  and  the  crop  must 
be  thinned. 

Delaware  is  grown  North  and  South,  westward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  is  now  proving  profitable  in  many  southern 
locations  as  an  early  grape  to  ship  to  northern  markets.  It  is 
an  especially  desirable  grape  to  cultivate  in  small  garders 
because  of  its  delicious,  handsome  fruit,  its  compact  habit  of 
growth  and  its  ample  and  lustrous  green,  delicately  formed 
leaves  which  make  it  one  of  the  most  ornamental  of  the  grapes. 
Delaware  can  be  traced  to  the  garden  of  Paul  H.  Provost, 
Frenchtown,  New  Jersey,  where  it  was  growing  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  from  whence  it  was  taken  to  Delaware, 
Ohio,  in  1849  and  from  there  distributed  to  fruit-growers. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  359 

Vine  weak,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  short,  numerous,  slender, 
dark  brown  ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
short,  bifid.  Leaves  small ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  dull,  smooth ; 
lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  three  to  five  in  number, 
terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  basal  sinus  narrow  and 
shallow  when  present ;  lateral  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  open  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  slender,  blunt,  cylindrical, 
regular,  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  smooth ;  brush 
light  brown.  Berries  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  small,  round,  light 
red,  covered  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough, 
adherent,  unpigmented,  astringent ;  flesh  light  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  tender,  aromatic,  vinous,  refreshing,  sweet;  best  in  quality. 
Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  broad,  notched,  short,  blunt,  light  brown. 


DIAMOND 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Few  other  grapes  surpass  Diamond  in  quality  and  beauty  of 
fruit.  When  to  its  desirable  fruit  characters  are  added  hard- 
iness, productiveness  and  vigor  of  vine,  the  variety  is  surpassed 
by  no  other  green  grape.  Diamond  is  a  diluted  hybrid  between 
Labrusca  and  Vinifera  and  the  touch  of  the  exotic  grape  is  just 
sufficient  to  give  the  fruit  the  richness  in  flavor  of  the  Old  World 
grape  and  not  overcome  the  refreshing  sprightliness  of  the  native 
fox-grapes.  The  Vinifera  characters  are  wholly  recessive  in 
vine  and  foliage,  the  plant  resembling  closely  its  American 
parent,  Concord.  Diamond  is  well  established  North  and 
South  and  can  be  grown  in  as  great  a  range  of  latitude  as  Con- 
cord. Jacob  Moore,  Brighton,  New  York,  grew  Diamond 
about  1870  from  Concord  seed  fertilized  by  lona. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  short,  brown  with  a 
slight  red  tinge ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermit- 
tent, bifid.  Leaves  thick;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth; 
lower  surface  light  bronze,  downy ;  lobes  three  in  number,  indistinct ; 
petiolar  sinus  very  shallow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open 
early ;  stamens  upright. 


360        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  to  short,  broad,  blunt, 
cylindrical,  often  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick 
with  a  few  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  slender,  pale  green.  Berries 
large,  ovate,  green  with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  glossy,  covered  with  thin 
bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh 
pale  green,  transparent,  juicy,  tender,  melting,  fine-grained,  aromatic, 
sprightly  ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  oiie  to  four,  broad  and  long,  sharp- 
pointed,  yellowish-brown. 

DIANA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Diana  (Plate  XII)  is  a  seedling  of  Catawba  to  which  its  fruit 
bearsstrong  resemblance,  differing  chiefly  in  having  lighter  color, 
in  being  less  pulpy  and  more  juicy.  The  flavor  resembles  that 
of  Catawba  but  has  less  of  the  wild  taste.  The  chief  point  of 
superiority  of  Diana  over  Catawba  is  in  earliness,  the  crop 
ripening  ten  days  sooner,  making  possible  its  culture  far  to  the 
north.  The  defects  of  Diana  are :  the  vine  is  tender  in  cold 
winters ;  the  grapes  ripen  unevenly ;  the  berries  and  foliage 
are  susceptible  to  fungi ;  and  the  vine  is  a  shy  bearer.  Diana 
demands  poor,  dry,  gravelly  soil  without  much  humus  or 
nitrogen.  On  clays,  loams  or  rich  soils,  the  vines  make  a  rank 
growth,  and  the  fruits  are  few,  late  and  of  poor  quality.  The 
vine  needs  to  be  long  pruned  and  to  have  all  surplus  bunches 
removed,  leaving  a  small  crop  to  mature.  Diana  is  a  satis- 
factory grape  for  the  amateur,  and  where  it  does  especially  well 
proves  profitable  for  the  local  market.  Mrs.  Diana  Crehore, 
Milton,  Massachusetts,  grew  Diana  from  seed  of  Catawba, 
planted  about  1834. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  often  unproductive.  Canes 
pubescent,  long,  reddish-brown,  covered  with  thin  bloom ;  nodes 
enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  bifid. 
Leaves  large,  thick;  upper  surface  light  green,  heavily  pubescent; 
lobes  three  to  five,  terminal  one  acute;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  wide, 
often  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  shallow ;  lateral  sinus 
narrow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season ; 
stamens  upright. 


PLATE  XXVI.  —  Niagara  (Xf) 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  361 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  broad,  tapering,  occasionally 
shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  covered  with  small  warts  ;  brush  slender, 
pale  green.  Berries  medium  in  size,  slightly  ovate,  light  red  covered 
with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  slightly  adherent ; 
flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  fine-grained,  vinous,  good. 
Seeds  adherent,  one  to  three,  light  brown. 

DOWNING 

(Vinifera,  ^Estivalis,  Labrusca) 

Downing  is  well  worthy  a  place  in  the  garden  because  of  the 
high  quality,  handsome  appearance  and  good  keeping  qualities 
of  the  grapes.  Added  to  these  qualities  of  the  fruits  are  fair 
vigor  and  health  of  vine.  When  grown  as  far  north  as  New 
York,  the  vine  should  be  laid  down  in  the  winter  or  receive 
other  protection.  In  most  seasons,  unremitting  warfare  must 
be  kept  up  to  check  mildew.  In  appearance  of  bunch  and  berry, 
Downing  is  distinct,  the  clusters  being  large  and  well-formed 
and  the  berries  having  the  oval  shape  of  a  Malaga.  The  flesh, 
also,  shows  Vitis  vinifera  in  texture  and  quality,  while  neither 
seeds  nor  skins  are  as  objectionable  as  in  pure-bred  American 
varieties.  J.  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York,  first  grew 
Downing  about  1865. 

Vine  tender  to  cold,  unproductive.  Canes  short,  few,  slender, 
dark  green  with  an  ash-gray  tinge,  surface  covered  with  thin  bloom, 
often  roughened  with  a  few  small  warts ;  nodes  much  enlarged,  strongly 
flattened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid. 
Leaves  small,  round,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  rugose ; 
lower  surface  dark  green,  glabrous ;  lobes  one  to  five,  terminal  lobe 
acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow,  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus 
shallow  and  narrow  when  present;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow; 
teeth  wide,  deep.  Flowers  open  late ;  stamen*  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  until  spring.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cylin- 
drical, sometimes  loosely  shouldered ;  pedicel  slender,  covered  with 
numerous  warts  ;  brush  long,  slender,  green.  Berries  large,  markedly 
oval,  dark  purplish-black,  glossy,  covered  with  light  bloom,  strongly 
persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tender,  adherent ;  flesh  green  with  a 
yellow  tinge,  translucent,  very  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  vinous,  mild  ; 
very  good  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  notched,  long,  brown. 


362         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 
DRACUT  AMBER 

(Labrusca) 

Dracut  Amber  is  representative  of  the  red  type  of  Labrusca. 
The  fruit  has  no  particular  merit,  its  thick  skin,  coarse  pulp, 
seeds  and  foxy  taste  all  being  objectionable.  However,  the 
vine  is  very  hardy,  productive,  and  ripens  its  fruit  early  so  that 
this  variety  becomes  valuable  in  locations  where  a  vigorous, 
hardy,  early  grape  is  wanted.  Asa  Clement,  Dracut,  Massa- 
chusetts grew  Dracut  Amber  from  seed  planted  about  1855. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  dark 
brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or 
trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick;  upper  surface  dark  green,  dull,  smooth; 
lower  surface  pale  green,  cobwebby ;  lobes  three  to  five  with  terminal 
one  obtuse ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  basal  sinus  shallow,  wide ; 
teeth  shallow.  Flowers  on  plan  of  six,  semi-fertile,  mid-season. 

Fruit  early,  season  short.  Clusters  short,  broad,  cylindrical, 
irregular,  rarely  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  covered  with 
warts ;  brush  long,  light  yellowish-green.  Berries  medium  to  large, 
oval,  dull  pale  red  or  dark  amber,  covered  with  thin  bloom,  soft ; 
skin  very  thick,  tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  tough,  very  foxy ;  inferior  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  two  to 
five,  large,  broad,  light  brown. 

DUTCHESS 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana  ?  ^Estivalis?) 

Dutchess  (Plate  XIII)  is  not  grown  largely  in  commercial  vine- 
yards because  of  several  faults,  as  :  the  vine  is  tender  to  cold  ;  the 
berries  do  not  ripen  evenly ;  berries  and  foliage  are  susceptible 
to  fungi;  and  in  soils  to  which  it  is  not  adapted,  berries  and 
bunches  are  small.  In  spite  of  these  defects,  Dutchess  should 
not  be  discarded  by  the  grape-lover,  for  there  are  few  grapes  of 
higher  quality.  The  grapes  are  sweet  and  rich,  yet  do  not 
cloy  the  appetite;  although  of  but  medium  size,  they  are 
attractive,  being  a  beautiful  amber  color  with  distinctive  dots ; 
the  flesh  is  translucent,  sparkling,  fine-grained  and  tender; 
the  seeds  are  small,  few  and  part  readily  from  the  pulp;  the 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  363 

skin  is  thin,  yet  tough  enough  for  good  keeping ;  and  the  bunches 
are  large  and  compact  when  well  grown.  The  variety  is  self- 
fertile  and,  therefore,  desirable  when  only  a  few  vines  are 
wanted.  The  clusters  are  especially  fine  when  bagged.  A.  J. 
Caywood,  Marlboro,  New  York,  grew  Dutchess  from  seed  of  a 
white  Concord  seedling  pollinated  by  mixed  pollen  of  Delaware 
and  Walter.  The  seed  was  planted  in  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  an  uncertain  bearer.  Canes  dark  brown  with  light 
bloom,  surface  roughened ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes 
short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  short,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  irregular 
in  outline ;  upper  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  leaf  entire  with 
terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  basal  sinus  shallow  when 
present ;  lateral  sinus  medium  in  depth  or  a  mere  notch.  Flowers  self- 
fertile,  open  late  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  long, 
slender,  tapering  with  a  prominent  single  shoulder ;  pedicel  slender, 
smooth ;  brush  amber-colored.  Berries  of  medium  size,  round,  pale 
yellow-green  verging  on  amber,  some  showing  bronze  tinge  with  thin 
bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  sprinkled  with  small  dark  dots,  thin, 
tough,  adherent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained, 
tender,  vinous,  sweet,  of  pleasant  flavor;  quality  high.  Seeds  free, 
one,  two  or  occasionally  three,  small,  short,  sharp-pointed,  brown. 

EARLY  DAISY 

(Labrusca) 

The  qualities  of  Early  Daisy  render  the  variety  more  than 
commonplace.  Its  earliness  commends  it,  the  ripening  period 
being  eight  or  ten  days  earlier  than  Champion  or  Moore  Early, 
making  it  one  of  the  very  earliest  varieties.  For  a  grape 
maturing  at  its  season,  it  both  keeps  and  ships  well.  Early 
Daisy  would  seem  to  be  as  desirable  as  Hertford  or  Champion. 
The  variety  originated  with  John  Kready,  Mount  Joy,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1874,  as  a  seedling  of  Hartford. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  produces  fair  crops.  Canes  of  medium 
length,  numerous,  slender,  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ; 
tendrils  continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  small,  light  green ;  upper  surface 
rugose ;  lower  surface  slightly  pubescent,  cobwebby  ;  lobes  wanting  or 


364        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

faintly  three ;    petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;    teeth  shallow,  narrow. 
Flowers  nearly  self -sterile. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  small  to  medium,  often  blunt  at  ends,  cylin- 
drical, sometimes  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender, 
smooth ;  brush  reddish,  slender.  Berries  of  medium  size,  round, 
dull  black,  covered  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  tough,  pur- 
plish-red pigment ;  flesh  tough,  solid,  aromatic,  tart  at  the  skin,  acid 
at  center ;  inferior  in  flavor  and  quality.  Seeds  numerous,  adherent, 
of  average  size,  dark  brown. 

EARLY  OHIO 

(Labrusca) 

Early  Ohio  is  remarkable,  chiefly,  in  being  one  of  the  earliest 
commercial  grapes.  The  fruit  resembles  that  of  Concord,  of 
which  it  is  probably  a  seedling.  Notwithstanding  many 
defects,  Early  Ohio  is  grown  somewhat  commonly,  although  its 
culture  is  on  the  wane.  The  variety  was  found  in  1-882  by 
R.  A.  Hunt,  Euclid,  Ohio,  between  rows  of  Delaware  and 
Concord. 

Vine  weak,  tender,  usually  unproductive.  Canes  short,  slender, 
brown  with  a  red  tinge  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  short ; 
tendrils  continuous,  short,  bifid.  Leaves  intermediate  in  size ;  upper 
surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green  tinged  with 
bronze,  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or  one  to  three,  terminal  one  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  basal  sinus  usually  absent ;  lateral  sinus 
shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid- 
season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  very  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size, 
tapering ;  pedicel  slender  with  a  few  small  warts ;  brush  slender, 
tinged  with  red.  Berries  variable  in  size,  round,  purplish-black, 
glossy  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  adherent,  astringent ; 
flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  aromatic ;  poor  in  quality. 
Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  notched,  brown  with  yellowish-brown  tips. 

EARLY  VICTOR 

(Labrusca,  Bourquiniana?) 

Early  Victor  is  highest  in  quality  of  early  black  grapes.  It 
is  especially  pleasing  to  those  who  object  to  the  foxiness  so 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  365 

marked  in  Hartford  and  Champion.  Were  the  season  but  a  few 
days  earlier  and  bunch  and  berry  a  little  larger,  Early  Victor 
would  be  the  best  grape  to  start  the  grape  season.  The  vines 
are  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous  and  productive,  with  growth  and 
foliage  resembling  Hartford,  which  is  probably  one  of  its 
parents,  Delaware  being  the  other.  The  bunches  are  small, 
compact,  variable  in  shape  and  the  berries  are  about  the  size 
and  shape  of  those  of  Delaware.  Its  reason  is  that  of  Moore 
Early  or  a  little  later,  although,  like  many  black  grapes,  the 
fruit  colors  before  it  is  ripe  and  is  often  picked  too  green.  Un- 
fortunately the  fruit  is  susceptible  to  black-rot  and  shrivels 
after  ripening.  John  Burr,  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  first  grew 
Early  Victor  about  1871. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
slender,  dark  brown,  surface  pubescent ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes 
long ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid,  sometimes  trifid.  Leaves  thick ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  smooth ;  lower  surface  white,  heavily 
pubescent ;  lobes  three  to  five,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus 
intermediate  in  depth  and  width ;  basal  sinus  shallow  and  wide  when 
present ;  lateral  sinus  narrow.  Flowers  semi-sterile,  open  in  mid- 
season;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  very  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  small,  variable  in 
shape,  cylindrical,  frequently  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel 
short,  covered  with  numerous  small  warts ;  brush  wine-colored  or 
pinkish-red.  Berries  small,  round,  dark  purplish-black,  dull  with 
heavy  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  contains  much  red 
pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  greenish-white,  opaque,  fine-grained, 
aromatic,  vinous  ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  broad,  notched, 
blunt,  dark  brown. 

EATON 

(Labrusca) 

Eaton  (Plate  XIV)  is  a  pure-bred  seedling  of  Concord  which  it 
surpasses  in  appearance  but  does  not  equal  in  quality  of  fruit. 
The  flesh  is  tough  and  stringy,  and  though  sweet  at  the  skin,  is 
acid  at  the  seeds  and  has  the  same  foxiness  that  characterizes 
Concord,  but  with  more  juice  and  less  richness,  so  that  it  is  well 


366        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

described  as  a  "  diluted  "  Concord.  The  grape-skin  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Concord,  and  the  fruit  packs,  ships  and  keeps 
about  the  same,  perhaps  not  quite  as  well  because  of  the  greater 
amount  of  juice.  The  season  is  a  few  days  earlier  than  Concord. 
The  vine  is  similar  in  all  characters  to  that  of  its  parent.  The 
grapes  ripen  unevenly,  the  flowers  are  self -sterile,  and  in  some 
locations  the  vine  is  a  shy  bearer.  The  variety  has  not  found 
favor  with  either  grower  or  consumer.  Eaton  originated  with 
Calvin  Eaton,  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  about  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  thick,  light 
brown  with  blue  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  short ; 
tendrils  continuous,  long,  bind  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  round,  thick ; 
upper  surface  dark  green ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily 
pubescent ;  lobes  three,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow, 
wide  ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking  ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  often 
notched ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  semi-sterile,  early ;  stamens  up- 
right. 

Fruit  mid-season.  Clusters  large,  short,  broad,  blunt,  sometimes 
double-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  thick,  smooth ;  brush 
slender,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  round,  black  with  heavy  bloom, 
persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  adherent,  purplish-red  pigment,  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  stringy,  foxy ;  fair  in 
quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  broad,  notched,  plump,  blunt. 


ECLIPSE 

(Labrusca) 

Eclipse  (Plate  XV)  is  a  seedling  of  Niagara  and,  therefore,  a 
descendant  of  Concord  which  it  resembles,  differing  chiefly  in 
earlier  fruit  which  is  of  better  quality.  Unfortunately,  the 
bunches  and  berries  are  small.  The  vines  are  hardly  surpassed 
by  those  of  any  other  variety,  being  hardy,  healthy  and  produc- 
tive, qualities  that  should  commend  it  for  commercial  vine- 
yards. The  ripe  fruit  hangs  on  the  vines  for  some  time  with- 
out deterioration,  and  the  grapes  do  not  crack  in  wet  weather. 
The  crop  ripens  several  days  earlier  than  that  of  Concord. 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  367 

Eclipse  originated  with  E.  A.  Riehl,  Alton,  Illinois,  from  seed 
planted  about  1890. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  medium  in  length, 
dark  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid. 
Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  dark  green ;  lower  surface  white  with  a 
bronze  tinge,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or  three  with  terminal 
one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking ; 
lateral  sinus  narrow,  often  notched ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers 
self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  of  medium  size,  broad,  tapering, 
frequently  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick,  covered 
with  small  warts ;  brush  long,  pale  green.  Berries,  large,  oval,  dull 
black  with  abundant  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tender,  slightly  ad- 
herent, astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  fine- 
grained, foxy,  sweet ;  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  short,  broad,  dis- 
tinctly notched,  blunt,  brown. 


EDEN 

(Rotundifolia,  Munsoniana?) 

Eden  is  of  value  as  a  general-purpose  grape  for  the  South 
and  is  interesting  as  one  of  the  few  supposed  hybrids  with  V. 
rotundifolia.  It  is  probably  a  hybrid  between  the  species 
named  and  V.  Munsoniana,  another  southern  wild  grape.  The 
vine  is  exceedingly  vigorous  and  productive  and  thrives  on  clay 
soils,  whereas  most  other  Rotundifolias  can  be  grown  success- 
fully only  on  sandy  lands.  Eden  was  found  some  years  ago  on 
the  premises  of  Dr.  Guild,  near  Atlanta,  Georgia. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  productive,  healthy  and  bearing  a  dense  canopy 
of  foliage.  Canes  darker  in  color  than  most  other  Rotundifolias. 
Leaves  of  medium  size  and  thickness,  longer  than  wide ;  petiolar  sinus 
wide ;  marginal  teeth  rounded  ;  leaf-tip  blunt.  Flowers  perfect. 

Fruit  early,  distinct  first  and  second  crops,  ripens  uniformly.  Clus- 
ters large,  loose,  bearing  from  five  to  twenty-five  berries  which  adhere 
fairly  well  to  the  pedicels.  Berries  round,  one-half  inch  in  diameter, 
dull  black,  faintly  specked ;  skin  thin,  tender ;  flesh  soft,  juicy,  pale 
green,  sprightly  ;  good  in  quality. 


368        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ELDORADO 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  fruit  of  Eldorado  is  delicately  flavored,  with  a  distinct 
aroma  and  taste  and  ripens  about  with  that  of  Moore  Early  - 
a  time  wThen  there  are  few  other  good  white  grapes.  The  vines 
inherit  most  of  the  good  qualities  of  Concord,  one  of  its  parents, 
excepting  ability  to  set  large  crops.  Even  with  cross-polli- 
nation, Eldorado  somet'mes  fails  to  bear  and  is  not  worth  grow- 
ing unless  planted  in  a  mixed  vineyard.  The  clusters  are  so 
often  small  and  straggling  under  the  best  conditions  that  the 
variety  cannot  be  recommended  highly  to  the  amateur ;  yet 
its  delightful  flavor  and  its  earliness  commend  it.  J.  H. 
Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York,  grew  Eldorado  about  1870 
from  seed  of  Concord  fertilized  by  Allen's  Hybrid. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  an  uncertain  bearer.  Canes  long,  few,  thick, 
flattened,  bright  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils 
intermittent,  rarely  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large  to 
medium,  irregularly  round,  dark  green ;  upper  surface  rugose  on  older 
leaves  ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  brown,  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or 
faintly  three ;  petiolar  sinus  deep ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self- 
sterile,  open  late  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  do  not  always  set  perfectly  and 
are  variable  in  size,  frequently  single-shouldered  ;  pedicel  short,  slender, 
smooth ;  brush  short,  yellow.  Berries  large,  round,  yellowish-green 
changing  to  golden  yellow,  covered  with  thin  bloom  ;  flesh  tender,  foxy, 
sweet,  mild,  high  flavored;  good  to  very  good  in  quality.  Seeds 
intermediate  in  size  and  length,  blunt,  yellowish-brown. 

ELVIRA 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Although  it  has  never  attained  popularity  in  the  North, 
Elvira  (Plate  XVI),  after  its  introduction  into  Missouri  about 
forty  years  ago,  reached  the  pinnacle  of  popularity  as  a  wine- 
grape  in  the  South.  The  qualities  which  commended  it  were  : 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES 

great  productiveness ;  earliness,  ripening  in  the  North  with  Con- 
cord ;  exceedingly  good  health,  being  almost  free  from  fungal 
diseases ;  great  vigor,  as  shown  by  a  strong,  stocky  growth  and 
ample  foliage ;  and  almost  perfect  hardiness  even  as  far  north 
as  Canada.  Its  good  qualities  are  offset  by  two  defects  :  thin 
skin  which  bursts  easily,  thus  wholly  debarring  it  from  distant 
markets;  and  flavor  and  appearance  not  sufficiently  good  to 
make  it  a  table-grape.  Elvira  originated  with  Jacob  Rommel, 
Morrison,  Missouri,  from  seed  of  Taylor. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  numerous, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous, 
trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thin ;  upper  surface  light  green,  pubes- 
cent, hairy ;  lobes  wanting  or  one  to  three  with  terminus  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal 
sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  often  notched ;  teeth 
deep,  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  short,  cylindrical, 
usually  single-shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  smooth;  brush  short, 
greenish-yellow  with  brown  tinge.  Berries  medium  in  size,  round, 
green  with  yellow  tinge,  dull  with  thin  bloom,  firm;  skin  very  thin, 
tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  green,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender, 
foxy,  sweet ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  medium  to  large, 
blunt,  plump,  dark  brown. 

EMPEROR 

(Vinifera) 

Emperor  is  one  of  the  standard  shipping  grapes  of  the  Pacific 
slope,  being  one  of  the  mainstays  of  the  interior  valleys.  On  the 
coast  and  in  southern  California,  it  is  irregular  in  bearing,  and  on 
the  coast  the  fruits  often  fail  to  ripen.  It  is  chiefly  grown  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  It  could  hardly  be  expected  to  ripen  even 
in  the  most  favored  grape  regions  in  the  East.  The  following 
brief  description  is  compiled : 

Vine   strong,   healthy   and  productive.     Leaves   very  large,   with 
five  shallow  lobes ;    teeth  short  and  obtuse ;    light  green  in  color ; 
2* 


370        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

glabrous  above,  wooly  beneath.  Bunches  very  large,  loose,  some- 
times inclined  to  be  straggling,  long-conical.  Berries  large,  dull 
purple,  oval ;  flesh  firm  and  crisp ;  skin  thick ;  flavor  and  quality 
good.  Ripens  late  and  keeps  and  ships  well. 


EMPIRE  STATE 
(Vulpina,  Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Empire  State  (Plate  XVII)  competes  with  Niagara  and  Dia- 
mond for  supremacy  among  green  grapes.  The  variety  is  as  vig- 
orous in  growth,  as  free  from  parasites,  and  on  vines  of  the  same 
age  is  as  productive,  but  is  less  hardy,  and  the  grapes  are  not  as 
attractive  in  appearance  as  those  of  the  other  varieties  named. 
In  particular,  the  clusters  are  small  in  some  localities,  a  defect 
which  can  be  overcome  only  by  severe  pruning  or  by  thinning. 
The  quality  is  very  good,  approaching  the  flavor  of  the  Old 
World  grapes,  its  slight  wild  taste  suggesting  one  of  the  Muscats. 
Empire  State  ripens  early,  hangs  long  on  the  vine  and  keeps 
well  after  picking  without  losing  flavor.  This  grape  originated 
with  James  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York,  bearing  fruit 
first  in  1879. 

Vine  vigorous,  somewhat  tender.  Canes  short,  few,  slender, 
brownish ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
bifid.  Leaves  small ;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy,  smooth  or 
somewhat  rugose ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ; 
lobes  three  to  five  when  present,  terminal  one  acuminate;  petiolar 
sinus  deep,  narrow,  often  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  variable 
in  depth  and  width ;  lateral  sinus  deep,  narrow,  often  enlarged  at 
base ;  teeth  deep,  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  late ;  stamens 
upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cylin- 
drical, frequently  single-shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  slender  with 
small  warts ;  brush  short,  light  green.  Berries  medium  or  small, 
round,  pale  yellowish-green,  covered  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ; 
skin  thick,  adherent  to  the  pulp,  slightly  astringent ;  flesh  pale  yellow- 
ish-green, translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  agreeably  flavored ; 
good  to  very  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  small,  broad,  notched, 
short,  blunt,  plump,  brown. 


m 


PLATE  XXVII.  —  Salem  (Xf). 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  371 

ETTA 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

In  appearance,  taste  and* text ure  of  fruit,  Etta  is  very  similar 
to  Elvira,  of  which  it  is  a  seedling.  The  small,  yellow  clusters 
which  characterize  Elvira  are  reproduced  in  Etta,  which  differs 
chiefly  in  having  a  shoulder  quite  as  large  as  the  main  bunch 
itself  and  in  having  a  better  flavor,  lacking  the  slight  foxiness  of 
Elvira.  The  vine  is  very  vigorous,  hardy,  and  is  productive 
to  a  fault.  The  fruit  ripens  with  that  of  Catawba.  The 
tendency  of  Elvira  to  crack  and  overbear  influenced  the 
originator  of  that  variety,  Jacob  Rommel,  Morrison,  Missouri, 
to  try  for  a  grape  without  these  faults,  and  the  result  was  Etta 
from  seed  of  Elvira.  The  fruit  was  first  exhibited  in  1879. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
light  to  dark  brown  ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
somewhat  cobwebby.  Flowers  self-fertile,  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  short,  broad,  irregularly 
cylindrical,  usually  with  a  short,  single  shoulder  but  sometimes  so 
heavily  shouldered  as  to  form  a  double  bunch,  very  compact.  Berries 
small,  round,  pale  green,  dull  with  thin  bloom,  shattering  when  over- 
ripe, firm ;  skin  thin,  tender ;  flesh  juicy,  fine-grained,  tough,  stringy, 
slightly  foxy,  mild ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  long,  blunt,  brown. 

EUMELAN 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera,  ^Estivalis) 

Washington 

The  good  qualities  of  Eumelan  are  :  vines  above  the  average 
in  vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness;  ''clusters  and  berries 
well  formed,  of  good  size  and  handsome  color ;  flesh  tender, 
dissolving  into  wine-like  juice  under  slight  pressure ;  and  pure 
flavor,  rich,  sweet,  vinous.  The  season  is  early,  yet  the  fruit 
keeps  much  better  than  that  of  most  other  grapes  maturing 


372        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

with  it  and  becomes,  therefore,  a  mid-season  and  late  grape. 
The  defects  of  the  variety  are  susceptibility  to  mildew,  self- 
sterile  flowers  and  difficulty  in  propagation.  The  latter  char- 
acter has  greatly  hindered  its  culture,  as  the  vines  can  be  se- 
cured only  at  extra  expense  and  nurserymen  are  loath  to  grow 
the  variety  at  all.  Eumelan  may  be  recommended  to  amateur 
growers.  It  is  a  chance  seedling  which  grew  from  seed,  about 
1847,  in  the  yard  of  a  Mr.  Thome,  Fishkill  Landing,  New  York. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  numerous,  covered  with 
bloom ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
long,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  smooth ;  lobes  usually  three  with 
terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  variable  in  width ;  basal 
sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  until  late  winter.  Clusters  long,  slender,  tapering, 
often  with  a  long,  loose,  single  shoulder ;  pedicel  short,  slender  with 
a  few  small  warts  ;  brush  short,  stubby,  pale  green.  Berries  of  medium 
size,  round,  black,  glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin 
tough,  adherent  with  wine-colored  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  dark 
green,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  stringy,  spicy  and  aromatic,  sweet; 
good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  large,  wide,  blunt,  plump,  brown. 

FAITH 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Although  spoken  of  as  a  desirable  grape  in  some  regions,  Faith 
is  of  little  value  in  most  localities.  The  fruit  is  unattractive  in 
appearance,  and  the  quality  is  not  high.  If  the  variety  has 
any  preeminently  good  character,  it  is  productiveness.  The 
blossoms  put  forth  so  early  that  they  often  suffer  from  spring 
frosts.  Faith  is  of  the  same  breeding  as  Etta  and  from  the 
same  originator,  Jacob  Rommel,  Morrison,  Missouri,  both 
having  come  from  seed  of  Elvira. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
thick,  cylindrical ;  nodes  prominent ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  con- 
tinuous, bifid.  Leaves  large,  dark  green ;  upper  surface  dark  green, 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  373 

dull ;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  thinly  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or 
faint ;  teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self-sterile  to  partly  self -fertile, 
open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  variable 
in  length,  usually  slender,  often  heavily  single-shouldered,  loose ; 
pedicel  short,  slender,  warty ;  brush  pale  green,  slender.  Berries 
small,  round,  dull  green,  frequently  with  a  yellow  tinge  changing  to 
pale  amber,  with  abundant  bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thin,  adherent, 
astringent ;  flesh  juicy,  tender,  agreeably  flavored ;  fair  to  good  in 
quality.  Seeds  numerous,  broad,  dark  brown. 

FEHER  SZAGOS 

(Vinifera) 

This  variety  succeeds  rather  well  at  Geneva,  New  York,  bear- 
ing fruits  of  excellent  quality.  It  has  two  defects,  dull  color  of 
the  berries  and  irregular  bunches.  It  is  worth  trying  in  the 
East.  Feher  Szagos  is  said  to  make  a  very  good  raisin  in 
California  and  usually  appears  in  lists  of  table-grapes  for  that 
state. 

Vines  vigorous,  somewhat  uncertain  bearers.  Opening  leaves 
pubescent,  red  along  the  edges  and  a  tinge  of  red  on  the  upper  surface. 
Flowers  have  upright  stamens.  Fruit  usually  ripens  the  first  week  in 
October  and  does  not  keep  well  in  storage ;  clusters  large  to  medium, 
broad,  loose,  frequently  irregular  because  of  poor  setting  of  fruit; 
berries  large,  oval  to  elliptical,  rather  dull  green,  with  thin  bloom ; 
skin  thick,  tender,  neutral ;  flesh  greenish,  translucent,  juicy,  meaty, 
tender,  sweet ;  quality  of  the  best ;  seeds  free. 

FERN  MUNSON 

(Lincecumii,  Vinifera,  Labrusca) 
Admirable,  Fern,  Hilgarde,  MuYtson's  No.  76 

Fern  Munson  is  a  southern  grape  not  adapted  to  northern 
regions,  40°  north  latitude  being  its  limit  of  adaptation.  The 
fruits  show  some  very  good  characters,  as  attractive  appearance, 
agreeable  quality  and  unobjectionable  seeds  and  skin.  The 


374        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

vines  are  vigorous  and  productive,  but  the  foliage  is  not  healthy 
although  very  abundant.  This  variety  originated  with  T.  V. 
Munson,  Denison,  Texas,  from  seed  of  Post-oak  with  mixed 
pollen.  The  seed  was  planted  in  1885,  and  the  variety  was 
introduced  by  the  originator  in  1893. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy.  Canes  long,  numerous,  thick, 
dark  brown  with  a  faint  red  tinge  ;  tendrils  intermittent,  bifid.  Leaves 
large,  thick ;  upper  surface  rugose  and  heavily  wrinkled  ;  lower  surface 
dull,  pale  green  with  a  bronze  tinge,  faintly  pubescent.  Flowers  semi- 
fertile,  open  very  late  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  irregularly  tapering,  usually 
single-shouldered,  often  with  many  abortive  fruits.  Berries  large, 
round,  slightly  flattened,  dark  purplish-black,  glossy,  covered  with 
thin  bloom,  strongly  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  astringent ; 
flesh  juicy,  tough,  firm,  fine-grained,  vinous,  briskly  subacid ;  good. 
Seeds  adherent,  broad. 

FLAME  TOKAY 

(Vinifera) 

This  is  the  leading  shipping  grape  of  the  Pacific  slope  where 
it  is  everywhere  grown  under  the  name  "Tokay,"  with  several 
modifying  terms,  as  "Flame,"  "Flame-colored"  and  "Flam- 
ing." The  fruit  is  not  especially  high  in  quality  nor  attractive 
in  appearance,  but  it  ships  and  keeps  well,  qualities  making  it 
popular  in  commercial  vineyards.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  luxuriant  in  growth  of  canes,  shoots  and  leaves  ; 
very  productive ;  wood  dark  brown,  straight  with  long  joints.  Leaves 
dark  green  with  a  brown  tinge;  lightly  lobed.  Bunches  very  large, 
sometimes  weighing  eight  or  nine  pounds,  moderately  compact ; 
shouldered.  Berries  large,  oblong,  red  when  mature,  covered  with 
lilac  bloom ;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  sweet ;  quality  good.  Season  late, 
keeps  and  ships  well. 

FLOWERS 

(Rotundifolia) 

Flowers  is  a  late,  dark-colored  Rotundifolia  very  popular 
in  the  Carolinas.  The  variety  is  noted  for  its  vigorous  and 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  375 

productive  vines,  its  large  fruit-clusters  and  grapes  that  cling 
in  the  cluster  unusually  well  for  a  variety  of  this  species.  The 
crop  ripens  in  North  Carolina  in  October  and  November.  The 
fruit  is  valuable  only  for  wine  and  grape-juice,  having  little  to 
recommend  it  for  dessert  purposes.  Flowers  was  found  in  a 
swamp  near  Lamberton,  North  Carolina,  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago  by  William  Flowers.  Improved  Flowers,  probably 
a  seedling  of  Flowers,  was  found  near  Whiteville,  North 
Carolina,  about  1869.  It  differs  from  its  supposed  parent  in 
having  a  more  vigorous  and  productive  vine  and  larger 
clusters,  the  berries  of  which  cling  even  more  tenaciously. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  upright,  open,  very  productive.  Canes 
long,  slender,  numerous.  Leaves  variable  but  average  medium  in  size, 
longer  than  broad,  pointed,  cordate,  thick,  dark  green,  smooth,  leath- 
ery ;  margins  sharply  serrate  ;  flowers  perfect. 

Fruit  very  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters,  large,  consisting  of  ten  to 
twenty-five  berries.  Berries  large,  round-oblong,  purple  or  purplish- 
black,  clinging  well  to  the  cluster-stem ;  skin  thick,  tough,  faintly 
marked  with  dots ;  pulp  white,  lacking  in  juice,  hard,  sweetish,  austere 
in  flavor ;  poor  for  a  table-grape  but  excellent  for  grape-juice. 


GAERTNER 
(Vinifera,  Labrusca) 

The  berries  and  clusters  of  Gaertner  are  large  and  hand- 
somely colored,  making  a  very  showy  grape.  The  plant  is 
vigorous,  productive  and  as  hardy  as  any  of  the  hybrids  between 
Labrusca  and  Vinifera.  In  view  of  these  qualities,  Gaertner 
has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserves,  probably  because  it 
is  more  capricious  as  to  soils  than  some,  others  of  its  related 
hybrids.  As  a  market  grape,  the  variety  has  the  faults  of 
ripening  unevenly  and  of  shipping  poorly.  The  fruit  keeps 
well  and  this,  with  the  desirable  qualities  noted,  makes  it  an 
excellent  grape  for  the  home  vineyard.  Gaertner  is  often 
compared  with  Massasoit,  the  two  varieties  being  very  similar 


376        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

in  fruit  characters,  but  Gaertner  is  of  distinctly  better  quality 
than  Massasoit.  The  variety  originated  with  E.  S.  Rogers, 
Salem,  Massachusetts.  It  was  first  mentioned  about  1865. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy  except  in  severe  winters,  productive.  Canes 
long,  dark  reddish-brown,  surface  covered  with  thin  bloom ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size,  round ;  upper 
surface  dark  green ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent.  Flowers  self- 
sterile,  open  late ;  stamens  refiexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  matures  unevenly,  keeps  only  fairly  well. 
Clusters  medium  in  size,  short,  cylindrical,  usually  with  a  single 
shoulder  but  sometimes  double-shouldered,  loose  with  many  abortive 
fruits.  Berries  large,  round-oval,  light  to  dark  red,  glossy,  covered 
with  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thin,  tender ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy, 
fine-grained,  tough,  stringy,  agreeably  vinous;  good  to  very  good. 
Seeds  free,  large,  broad,  distinctly  notched,  brown. 

GENEVA 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca) 

Geneva  is  surpassed  by  so  many  other  grapes  of  its  season  in 
quality  that  it  has  never  become  popular,  although  it  has  much 
to  recommend  it.  The  vine  is  vigorous  and  productive,  al- 
though not  quite  hardy,  and  the  berries  and  clusters  are  attrac- 
tive ;  the  fruit  is  nearly  transparent  and  there  is  so  little  bloom 
that  the  grapes  are  a  lustrous  green  or  iridescent  in  sunlight ;  the 
berries  cling  well  to  the  stem  and  the  fruit  keeps  exceptionally 
well.  Geneva  originated  with  Jacob  Moore,  Brighton,  New 
York,  from  seed  planted  in  1874  from  a  hybrid  vine  fertilized 
by  lona. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  covered  with  thin 
bloom ;  tendrils  intermittent  or  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
medium  in  size ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull ;  lower  surface  gray- 
ish-white, pubescent;  lobes  three  to  five,  acute;  petiolar  sinus, 
shallow,  wide ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self-sterile  or  partly 
fertile,  open  late  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  ships  well  and  keeps  into  the  winter.  Clusters 
large,  blunt  at  the  ends,  usually  not  shouldered,  with  many  abortive 
fruits ;  pedicel  long,  slender,  smooth ;  brush  long,  green.  Berries 
large,  oval,  dull  green  changing  to  a  faint  yellow  with  thin  bloom ; 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  377 

skin  thick,  tough,  unpigmented ;  flesh  pale  green,  tender,  soft,  vinous, 
sweet  at  skin  but  tart  at  center ;  fair  to  good.  Seeds  of  medium  size 
and  length. 

GOETHE 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca) 

Of  all  Rogers'  hybrids,  Goethe  shows  Vinifera  characters 
most,  resembling  in  appearance  the  White  Malaga  of  Europe, 
and  not  falling  far  short  of  the  best  Old  World  grapes  in  quality. 
But  the  variety  is  difficult  to  grow,  especially  where  the  seasons 
are  not  long  enough  for  full  maturity.  The  vine  is  vigorous  to  a 
fault ;  it  is  fairly  immune  to  mildew,  rot  and  other  diseases : 
and,  where  it  succeeds,  the  vines  bear  so  freely  that  thinning 
becomes  a  necessity.  Added  to  high  quality,  which  makes  it  an 
excellent  table-grape,  Goethe  keeps  well.  Goethe  was  first 
mentioned  in  1858  under  the  name  of  Rogers'  No.  1. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy.  Canes  short,  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged, 
flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous  or  intermittent,  long, 
bifid  to  trifid.  Leaves  irregularly  round,  thin ;  upper  surface  light 
green,  glossy ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  leaf  usually 
not  lobed,  terminus  broadly  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow,  closed  and 
overlapping ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow, 
often  a  notch ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  partly  self -fertile, 
open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  short,  broad,  tapering,  frequently 
single-shouldered,  usually  two  bunches  to  shoot ;  pedicel  long,  thick 
with  numerous  conspicuous  warts;  brush  long,  slender,  yellowish- 
brown.  Berries  very  large,  oval,  pale  red  covered  with  thin  bloom, 
persistent ;  skin  thin,  tender,  adherent,  faintly  astringent ;  flesh  pale 
green,  translucent,  tender  with  Vinifera  flavor ;  very  good.  Seeds 
adherent,  one  to  three,  large,  long,  notched,  blunt,  brown. 

GOLD  COIN     * 

(JSstivalis,  Labrusca) 

In  the  South,  where  alone  it  thrives,  Gold  Coin  is  a  handsome 
market  variety  of  very  good  quality.  The  vines  are  productive 
and  are  unusually  free  from  attacks  of  fungal  diseases.  The 


378        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

variety  originated  with  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Texas,  from 
seed  of  Cynthiana  or  Norton  pollinated  by  Martha  and  was 
introduced  by  the  originator  in  1894. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  slender,  numerous  ;  ten- 
drils continuous,  sometimes  intermittent,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves 
medium  in  size  ;  upper  surface  light  green,  slightly  rugose  ;  lower  sur- 
face pale  green,  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily  pubescent.  Flowers  self- 
fertile  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  keeps  long.  Clusters  medium  to  small,  usually 
single-shouldered.  Berries  large,  round-oval,  yellowish-green  with  a 
distinct  trace  of  reddish-amber,  with  thin  bloom,  usually  persistent ; 
skin  covered  with  small,  scattering  brown  dots,  thin,  tough  ;  flesh  faintly 
aromatic,  tart  from  skin  to  center ;  good.  Seeds  free,  numerous, 
medium  in  size. 

GREEN  EARLY 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Green  Early  is  a  white  grape  coming  in  season  with •  Winchell, 
which  surpasses  it  in  most  characters,  quality  in  particular. 
Green  Early  was  found  in  1885,  growing  by  the  side  of  a  ditch 
near  a  Concord  vineyard,  on  land  belonging  to  O.  J.  Green, 
Portland,  New  York. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  variable  in  length  and 
thickness,  dark  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes 
short;  tendrils  continuous,  sometimes  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid. 
Leaves  variable  in  size,  medium  green;  upper  surface  dark  green, 
glossy ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or  faintly 
five ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size,  length 
and  breadth,  sometimes  single-shouldered,  variable  in  compactness. 
Berries  large,  oval,  light  green  tinged  with  yellow,  with  thin  bloom, 
persistent,  soft ;  skin  thin,  tender,  inclined  to  crack ;  flesh  tough  and 
aromatic,  sweet  at  skin  but  acid  at  center ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds 
medium  in  size,  length  and  breadth,  sharp-pointed. 

GREIN  GOLDEN 
(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Grein  Golden  is  very  similar  to  Riesling,  but  the  vine  is  much 
stronger  in  growth.  For  a  variety  of  the  Taylor  group,  both 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  379 

cluster  and  berry  are  large  and  uniform,  which,  with  the  attrac- 
tive color  of  the  berries,  make  it  a  most  handsome  fruit.  The 
flavor,  however,  is  not  at  all  pleasing,  being  an  unusual  commin- 
gling of  sweetness  arid  acidity  very  disagreeable  to  most  palates. 
The  quality  of  the  fruit  condemns  it  for  table  use,  although  it  is 
said  to  make  a  very  good  white  wine.  Nicholas  Grein,  Her- 
mann, Missouri,  first  grew  Grein  Golden  about  1875. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  slender, 
dark  reddish-brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  long  ;  ten- 
drils intermittent,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface 
dark  green,  dull,  smooth  ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  lightly  pubescent ; 
lobes  lacking  or  one  to  three  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep, 
narrow ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  wide, 
obscure ;  teeth  deep.  Flowers  self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season ; 
stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering,  irregular, 
often  heavily  single-shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel  with  a  few  incon- 
spicuous warts ;  brush  slender,  pale  green.  Berries  uniform  in  size, 
large,  round,  golden  yellow,  glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin 
very  thin,  tender ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  very  juicy,  tender,  vinous  ; 
good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  broad,  plump,  light  brown. 


COLMAN 
(Vinifera) 

Dodrelabi 

Gros  Colman  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  handsomest 
black  table-grape  grown.  It  is  one  of  the  favorite  hot-house 
grapes  in  England  and  eastern  America  and  is  commonly  grown 
out  of  doors  in  California.  The  variety  is  remarkable  for  hav- 
ing the  largest  berries  of  any  round  grape,  borne  in  immense 
bunches,  and  for  the  long-keeping  qualities,  although  the  tender 
skins  sometimes  crack.  The  following  description  is  compiled  : 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive  ;  wood  dark  brown.  Leaves 
very  large,  round,  thick,  but  slightly  lobed ;  teeth  short  and  blunt ; 


380         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

glabrous  above,  woolly  below.  Bunches  very  large,  short,  well  filled 
but  rather  loose ;  berries  very  large,  round,  dark  blue ;  skin  thick  but 
tender ;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  sweet  and  good ;  quality  not  of  the  highest. 
Season  late  and  the  fruits  keep  long. 


HARTFORD 
(Labrusca) 

The  vine  of  Hartford  may  be  well  characterized  by  its  good 
qualities,  but  the  fruit  is  best  described  by  its  faults,  because 
of  which  the  variety  is  passing  out  of  cultivation.  The 
plants  are  vigorous,  prolific,  healthy  and  the  fruit  is  borne  early 
in  the  season.  The  canes  are  remarkable  for  their  stoutness 
and  for  the  crooks  at  the  joints.  The  bunches  are  not  unat- 
tractive, but  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  low,  the  flesh  being 
pulpy  and  the  flavor  insipid  and  foxy.  The  berries  shell  badly 
on  the  vine  and  when  packed  for  shipping,  so  that  the  fruit  does 
not  ship,  pack  or  keep  well.  The  grapes  color  long  before  ripe, 
and  the  flowers  are  only  partly  self-fertile,  so  that  in  seasons 
when  there  is  bad  weather  during  blooming  time  the  clusters 
are  loose  and  straggling.  The  original  vine  of  Hartford  was  a 
chance  seedling  in  the  garden  of  Paphro  Steele,  West  Hartford, 
Connecticut.  It  fruited  first  in  1849. 

Vine  vigorous,  very  productive.  Canes  long,  dark  brown,  covered 
with  pubescence ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  inter  nodes  short ;  ten- 
drils continuous,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  thinly  pubescent ;  lobes 
variable ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  partly  self- 
fertile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  long,  slender,  tapering,  ir- 
regular, often  with  a  long,  large,  single  shoulder,  loose ;  pedicel  short 
with  a  few  small  warts ;  brush  greenish.  Berries  medium  in  size, 
round-oval,  black,  covered  with  bloom,  drop  badly ;  skin  thick,  tough, 
adherent,  contains  much  purplish-red  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  green, 
translucent,  juicy,  firm,  stringy,  foxy ;  poor  in  quality.  Seeds  free, 
one  to  four,  broad;  dark  brown. 


PLATE  XXVIII.  —  Triumph  (Xf). 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  381 

HAYES 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

In  1880,  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  awarded 
a  certificate  of  merit  to  Hayes  for  high  quality  in  fruit.  This 
brought  it  prominently  before  grape-growers  and  for  a  time 
it  was  popular,  but  when  better  known  several  defects  became 
apparent.  The  vine  is  hardy  and  vigorous,  but  the  growth  is 
slow  and  the  variety  is  a  shy  bearer.  Both  bunches  and  berries 
are  small,  and  the  crop  ripens  at  a  time,  a  week  or  ten  days 
earlier  than  Concord,  when  there  are  many  other  good  green 
grapes.  Excellent  though  it  is  in  quality,  the  variety  is  hardly 
worth  a  place  in  any  vineyard.  John  B.  Moore,  Concord, 
Massachusetts,  is  the  originator  of  Hayes.  It  is  a  seedling  of 
Concord  out  of  the  same  lot  of  seedlings  as  Moore  Early.  It 
was  first  fruited  in  1872. 

Vine  variable  in  vigor  and  productiveness,  hardy  and  healthy. 
Canes  numerous,  slender ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  short ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  bind  or  trifid.  Leaves  uniform  in  size ;  upper 
surface  dark  green ;  lower  surface  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  three ; 
teeth  shallow,  small.  Flowers  almost  self-sterile,  open  medium  late ; 
stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size  and  length, 
often  single-shouldered ;  pedicel  long,  slender ;  brush  small,  pale 
green.  Berries  medium  in  size,  round,  greenish-yellow,  covered  with 
thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thin,  tender  with  a  few  small  reddish- 
brown  dots ;  flesh  fine-grained,  tender,  vinous,  sweet  at  the  skin, 
agreeably  tart  at  center,  mild ;  good.  Seeds  few,  of  average  size, 
short,  plump,  brown. 

HEADLIGHT 

j 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 

Headlight  is  more  desirable  for  southern  than  for  northern 
vineyards,  yet  it  is  worthy  of  trial  in  the  North.  Its  meritorious 
characters  are :  productiveness,  outyielding  Delaware,  with 


382        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

which  it  competes;  disease-resistant  foliage  and  vines;  more 
than  average  vigor  of  vine ;  high  quality  of  fruit,  being  almost 
the  equal  of  Delaware  in  flavor  and  having  tender,  melting 
pulp  which  readily  parts  from  the  seeds ;  and  earliness,  ripening 
before  Delaware  and  hanging  on  the  vines  or  keeping  after  being 
picked  for  some  time  without  deterioration.  The  originator 
of  Headlight,  T.  V.  Munson,  states  that  the  variety  came  from 
seed  of  Moyer  fertilized  by  Brilliant.  The  seed  was  planted 
in  1895  and  the  grape  was  introduced  in  1901. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive.  Canes  short,  few  in  num- 
ber, slender,  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ; 
tendrils  continuous,  short,  bifid,  very  persistent.  Leaves  small, 
thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale 
green,  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  three  with  terminus  obtuse ;  petiolar 
sinus  intermediate  in  depth  and  width;  basal  sinus  usually  lacking; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self-sterile, 
open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  short,  tapering,  frequently 
single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  covered  with  a 
few  small  warts ;  brush  yellowish-brown.  Berries  small,  round,  dark 
red  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  adherent,  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  very  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  vinous, 
sweet ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  small,  light  brown. 

HERBEMONT 

(Bourquiniana) 

Bottsi,    Brown    French,  Dunn,    Herhemont's    Madeira,    Hunt, 
Kay's  Seedling,  McKee,  Neal,  Warren,  Warrenton 

In  the  South,  Herbemont  holds  the  same  rank  as  Concord 
in  the  North.  The  vine  is  fastidious  as  to  soil,  requiring  a  well- 
drained  warm  soil,  and  one  which  is  abundantly  supplied  with 
humus.  Despite  these  limitations,  this  variety  is  grown  in  an 
immense  territory,  extending  from  Virginia  and  Tennessee  to 
the  Gulf  and  westward  through  Texas.  The  vine  is  remark- 
ably vigorous,  being  hardly  surpassed  in  this  character  by  any 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  383 

other  of  our  native  grapes.  The  fruits  are  attractive  because 
of  the  large  bunch  and  the  glossy  black  of  the  small  berries, 
and  are  borne  abundantly  and  with  certainty  in  suitable  local- 
ities. The  flesh  characters  of  the  fruit  are  good  for  a  small 
grape,  neither  flesh,  skin  nor  seeds  being  objectionable  in  eat- 
ing; the  pulp  is  tender,  juicy,  rich,  sweet  and  highly  flavored. 
The  ample,  lustrous  green  foliage  makes  this  variety  one  of  the 
attractive  ornamental  plants  of  the  South.  Herbemont  is 
known  to  have  been  in  cultivation  in  Georgia  before  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  when  it  was  generally  called  Warren  and  War- 
ren ton.  In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  it  came  to  the 
hands  of  Nicholas  Herbemont,  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 
whose  name  it  eventually  took. 

Vine  very  vigorous.  Canes  long,  strong,  bright  green,  with  more 
or  less  purple  and  heavy  bloom ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermit- 
tent, bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  round,  entire,  or  three  to  seven- 
lobed,  nearly  glabrous  above  and  below;  upper  surface  clear  green; 
lower  surface  lighter  green,  glaucous.  Flowers  self -fertile. 

Fruit  very  late.  Clusters  large,  long,  tapering,  prominently 
shouldered,  compact ;  pedicels  short  with  a  few  large  warts ;  brush 
pink.  Berries  round,  small,  uniform,  reddish-black  or  brown  with 
abundant  bloom  ;  skin  thin,  tough  ;  flesh  tender,  juicy ;  juice  colorless 
or  slightly  pink,  sweet,  sprightly.  Seeds  two  to  four,  small,  reddish- 
brown,  glossy. 

HERBERT 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

In  all  that  constitutes  a  fine  table-grape,  Herbert  (Plate 
XVIII)  is  as  near  perfection  as  any  American  variety.  For  a 
Vinifera-Labrusca  hybrid,  the  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  and 
fruitful,  ranking  in  these  respects  above  many  pure-bred 
Labruscas.  While  the  fruit  ripens  with  Concord,  it  keeps 
much  later  and  packs  and  ships  better.  The  variety  is  self- 
sterile  and  must  be  set  near  other  varieties.  Herbert  is 
deserving  attention  from  commercial  growers  who  supply  a 


384         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

discriminating  market,  and  its  many  good  qualities  give  it  high 
place  as  a  garden  grape.  The  variety  is  one  of  Rogers'  hybrids, 
named  Herbert  in  1869. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  thick, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils 
intermittent,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  round ;  upper  sur- 
face dark  green,  dull,  smooth;  lower  surface  pale  green  with  some 
pubescence  ;  leaf  entire,  terminus  obtuse  ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow, 
closed,  overlapping ;  basal  and  lateral  sinuses  lacking  ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  broad,  tapering, 
two  to  three  clusters  per  shoot,  heavily  single-shouldered,  loose ; 
pedicel  thick  with  small  russet  warts ;  brush  yellowish-green.  Berries 
large,  round-oval,  flattened,  dull  black,  covered  with  thick  bloom, 
persistent,  firm;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent,  astringent;  flesh  light 
green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained ;  very  good.  Seeds 
adherent,  three  to  six,  large,  broad,  notched,  long  with  swollen  neck, 
blunt,  brown  with  yellow  tips. 


HERCULES 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Hercules  is  characterized  by  very  large  berries,  fruit  hand- 
somely colored  and  cluster  large  and  well-formed.  The  flavor, 
while  not  of  the  best,  is  good.  Added  to  the  desirable  qualities 
of  the  fruit,  the  vines  are  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive. 
These  good  characters,  however,  cannot  make  up  for  the  several 
defects  of  the  variety.  The  grapes  drop  and  crack  badly  and 
the  pulp  is  tough  and  adheres  too  firmly  to  the  seed  for  a  des- 
sert grape,  so  that  the  variety  is  worthless  except  for  breeding 
purposes.  Hercules  was  introduced  by  G.  A.  Ensenberger, 
Bloomington,  Illinois,  about  1890;  its  parentage  is  unknown. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive.  Canes  long,  dark 
reddish-brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  long  ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  three, 
terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  basal  sinus  usually 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  385 

absent ;    lateral  sinus  shallow ;    teeth  shallow.     Flowers  self-sterile, 
open  in  mid-season  ;   stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  very  large,  broad,  tapering, 
one  to  three  clusters  per  shoot,  compact ;  brush  pale  green.  Berries 
very  large,  round,  black,  glossy  with  heavy  bloom,  firm ;  skin  ad- 
herent, astringent ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  very  tough,  coarse, 
stringy,  foxy;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  five,  large, 
broad,  deeply  notched,  blunt,  brown. 

HICKS 

(Labrusca) 

Hicks  is  a  remarkably  good  grape  and  were  it  not  that  the 
fruit  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Concord,  ripening  with  it 
or  a  little  earlier,  it  would  have  a  place  in  the  viticulture  of  the 
country.  However,  since  it  was  introduced  some  years  ago  and 
has  not  found  great  favor  with  growers,  it  seems  that  it  cannot 
make  headway  against  Concord,  with  which  it  must  compete. 
In  many  localities  the  vines  are  more  prolific  than  those  of 
Concord  and  of  stronger  growth.  Hicks  was  introduced  in 
1898  by  Henry  Wallis,  Wellston,  Missouri,  who  states  that  it  is 
a  chance  seedling  sent  from  California  about  1870  to  Richard 
Berry,  a  nurseryman  of  St.  Louis  County,  Missouri. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive.  Canes  medium  to 
long,  numerous,  reddish-brown,  covered  with  thin  bloom ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  glossy ;  lower  surface  white,  changing  to  a  heavy  bronze, 
strongly  pubescent.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  taper- 
ing, often  single-shouldered.  Berries  large,  round,  purplish-black  with 
heavy  bloom,  shatter  when  overripe,  firm ;  skin  tender  with  dark  wine- 
colored  pigment ;  flesh  green,  juicy,  tough,  fine-grained,  faintly  foxy ; 
good.  Seeds  adherent,  large,  short,  broad,  blunt,  brown. 

HIDALGO 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 

The  grapes  of  Hidalgo  are  rich,  sweet,  delicately  flavored, 
and  with  color,  size  and  form  of  berry  and  bunch  so  well  com- 
2c 


386        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

bined  as  to  make  the  fruits  singularly  handsome.  The  skin  is 
thin  but  firm  and  the  variety  keeps  and  ships  well.  The  vines, 
however,  are  doubtfully  hardy,  variable  in  vigor  and  not  al- 
ways fruitful.  While  Hidalgo  may  not  prove  of  value  for  the 
commercial  vineyard,  in  favorable  situations  it  may  give  a 
supply  of  choice  fruit  for  the  amateur.  The  parentage  of 
Hidalgo,  as  given  by  its  originator,  T.  V.  Munson,  is  Delaware, 
Goethe  and  Lindley.  The  variety  was  introduced  by  the 
originator  in  1902. 

Vine  variable  in  vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness.  Canes  thick, 
dark  reddish-brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  tendrils  intermittent 
or  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  irregularly  round,  thick ; 
upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
bronzed,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  three  when  present ;  petiolar  sinus 
narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  wanting ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow ;  teeth  very  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers 
semi-fertile,  open  after  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  long, 
slender,  cylindrical,  often  blunt,  not  shouldered,  one  to  two  bunches 
per  shoot,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  slender  with  small  warts ;  brush 
yellowish-green  with  brown  tinge.  Berries  large,  oval,  greenish-yellow, 
glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent, 
astringent ;  flesh  green,  transparent,  juicy,  tender,  melting,  aromatic, 
sweet ;  very  good  to  best.  Seeds  free,  two  to  four,  large,  plump, 
light  brown. 

HIGHLAND 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca) 

Few  varieties  of  black  grapes  equal  Highland  in  appearance 
and  quality  of  fruit.  When  given  good  care  under  favorable 
conditions,  the  bunches  are  unusually  large  and  handsome  in 
appearance,  sometimes  attaining  a  weight  of  two  pounds,  and 
bear  beautiful  bluish-black  berries  with  the  fine  flavor  and 
tender  texture  of  Jura  Muscat,  one  of  its  parents.  The  flesh 
is  solid,  firm  and  the  fruit  keeps  and  ships  well.  The  vine  is 
vigorous,  productive  to  a  fault  but  is  doubtfully  hardy.  Where 
the  climate  is  temperate  and  the  season  long  enough  for  the 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  387 

vine  and  fruit  of  Highland  to  develop,  this  is  one  of  the  choicest 
grapes  for  the  amateur.  The  variety  originated  about  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  with  J.  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New 
York,  from  seed  of  Concord  fertilized  by  Jura  Muscat. 

Vine  variable  in  vigor,  productive,  healthy.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
dark  brown  with  thin  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  long ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  pubescent ;  lobes 
one  to  five,  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  variable  in  width ; 
basal  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  lateral  sinus  a  notch;  teeth  deep,  wide. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering, 
usually  single -shouldered,  usually  two  bunches  per  shoot ;  pedicel 
long,  thick,  smooth;  brush  green  with  yellow  tinge.  Berries  large, 
round-oval,  purplish-black,  dull  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ; 
skin  tough,  free ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  vinous ;  good. 
Seeds  free,  one  to  six,  large,  long,  notched,  brown. 


HOPKINS 

(Rotundifolia) 

Hopkins  is  named  by  grape-growers  in  the  South  Atlantic 
states  as  the  best  early  Rotundifolia  grape.  Its  season  in 
North  Carolina  begins  early  in  August,  nearly  a  month  before 
any  other.  It  is,  also,  one  of  the  best  in  quality  and  for  quality 
and  earliness  should  be  in  every  home  vineyard  in  the  region 
in  which  it  grows.  Hopkins  was  found  near  Wilmington, 
North  Carolina,  about  1845,  by  John  Hopkins. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  slender,  up- 
right. Leaves  of  medium  size,  variable,  cordate,  longer  than  broad, 
thick,  leathery,  smooth,  dark  green ;  margins  sharply  serrate.  Flowers 
self -fertile. 

Fruit  very  early.  Clusters  large,  containing  from  four  to  ten 
berries.  Berries  large,  dark  purple  or  almost  black,  round-oblong, 
shelling  badly;  skin  thick,  tough,  faintly  marked  with  dots;  pulp 
white,  tender,  juicy  with  a  sweet,  pleasant  flavor ;  one  of  the  best  of 
the  Rotundifolias  in  quality. 


388        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

HOSFORD 
(Labrusca) 

Hosford  is  an  offspring  of  Concord,  differing  from  the  parent 
chiefly  in  the  greater  size  of  bunch  and  berry  and  in  being  less 
fruitful.  The  variety  is  surpassed  by  Worden  and  Eaton,  of 
the  same  type,  and  is  probably  not  worth  cultivation.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  Hosford  is  identical  with  Eaton  but  there 
are  noticeable  differences  in  both  vine  and  fruit  characters. 
The  vine  looks  very  like  that  of  Concord  except  that  the  inden- 
tations along  the  margins  of  the  leaves  are  deeper.  Hosford 
originated  in  the  garden  of  George  Hosford,  Ionia,  Michigan, 
about  1876,  as  a  chance  seedling  growing  between  two  Con- 
cord vines. 

Vines  lacking  in  vigor,  hardy,  unproductive.  Canes  short,  few 
in  number,  slender  ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  internodes  very  short ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size ;  upper  surface 
light  green,  rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish- white  to  bronze,  heavily 
pubescent ;  lobes  faint ;  petiolar  sinus  wide ;  teeth  small,  sharp. 
Flowers  shallow,  semi-fertile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  large,  tapering, 
slightly  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short  with  small  warts ;  brush 
slender,  green.  Berries  large,  round-oval,  dull  black  with  abundant 
bloom,  persistent;  skin  thick,  tender;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  fine- 
grained, tender,  vinous,  sweet ;  good.  Seeds  few,  large,  broad,  blunt, 
plump,  brown. 

HYBRID  FRANC 

(Vinifera,  Rupestris) 

Hybrid  Franc  is  the  best-known  cross  between  Rupestris 
and  Vinifera.  It  is  one  of  the  few  varieties  used  in  Europe 
as  a  resistant  stock  now  recommended  for  a  direct  producer. 
The  vines  are  hardy,  vigorous  and  very  productive.  The  fruit 
is  fit  only  for  wine  or  grape-juice,  being  too  acid  to  eat  out  of 
hand.  The  coloring  matter  in  the  fruit  is  very  intense  and 


VARIETIES   OF    GRAPES  389 

might  be  used  in  giving  color  to  grape  products.     The  variety 
is  of  French  origin. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  numerous,  thick,  light 
brown  with  blue  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils 
intermittent,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  small,  thin;  upper  surface 
light  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  green,  hairy  along  ribs 
and  large  veins ;  lobes  three  to  five  with  terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar 
sinus  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  lateral  sinus  a  notch. 
Flowers  semi-fertile,  open  early ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size, 
short,  cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  slender 
with  few  small  warts;  brush  short,  wine-colored.  Berries  small, 
oblate,  black,  glossy  with  thick  bloom,  persistent,  firm;  skin  thir, 
tender  with  very  dark  wine-colored  pigment ;  flesh  green  with  reddish 
tinge,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  spicy,  tart ;  fair  in 
quality.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  small,  short,  light  brown. 


IDEAL 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera,  Bourquiniana) 

Ideal  is  a  handsome  seedling  of  Delaware,  from  which  it  dif- 
fers chiefly  in  being  larger  in  bunch  and  berry,  attaining  in  both 
of  these  characters  nearly  the  size  of  Catawba.  In  Kansas  and 
Missouri,  this  variety  is  highly  recommended,  not  only  for  the 
high  quality  of  the  fruit,  ranking  with  Delaware  in  quality,  but 
because  of  vigorous,  healthy,  productive  vines.  But  farther 
north  the  vines  are  precariously  hardy  and  not  sufficiently  fruit- 
ful, healthy  nor  vigorous  to  warrant  high  recommendation. 
Ideal  originated  with  John  Burr,  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  from 
seed  of  Delaware,  about  1885. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  productive";  tendrils  intermittent, 
bifid  or  trifid.  Canes  long,  numerous,  slender,  dark  brown;  nodes 
enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  long.  Leaves  large,  variable  in  color ; 
lobes  three  to  five ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  wide ;  teeth  deep,  narrow ; 
upper  surface  light  green,  dull ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent. 

Fruit  early  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  broad,  heavily 
shouldered ;  pedicel  thick ;  brush  green.  Berries  large,  round,  dark 


390         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

red  with  thin  bloom,  usually  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough, 
adherent ;  flesh  green,  tender,  aromatic,  sweet  next  the  skin,  acid  at 
the  center ;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds  adherent,  large,  plump,  brown. 

lONA 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

In  flavor,  the  fruit  of  lona  (Plate  XIX)  has  a  rare  combina- 
tion of  sweetness  and  acidity,  pure,  delicate  and  vinous.  The 
flesh  is  transparent,  melting,  tender,  juicy  and  of  uniform  con- 
sistency quite  to  the  center.  The  seeds  are  few  and  small  and 
part  readily  from  the  flesh.  The  color  is  a  peculiar  dark-red 
wine  with  a  tint  of  amethyst,  variable  and  not  always  attrac- 
tive. The  bunch  is  large  but  loose,  with  berries  varying  in  size 
and  ripening  unevenly.  The  fruit  may  be  kept  until  late  winter. 
The  vine  characters  of  lona  are  not  as  good  as  those  of  the  fruit. 
To  do  well,  the  vine  must  have  a  soil  exactly  suited  to  its  wants, 
seemingly  thriving  best  in  deep,  dry,  sandy  or  gravelly  clays, 
lona  responds  especially  well  when  trained  against  walls  or 
buildings,  attaining  under  such  conditions  rare  perfection.  The 
vines  are  doubtfully  hardy  and  in  many  parts  of  the  North 
must  have  winter  protection ;  they  are  not  vigorous  and  are  in- 
clined to  overbear,  to  remedy  which  they  must  have  close  prun- 
ing. In  localities  in  which  mildew  and  rot  thrive,  the  variety 
is  badly  attacked  by  these  diseases.  lona  originated  with 
C.  W.  Grant,  lona  Island,  New  York,  from  seed  of  Diana  planted 
in  1885. 

Vine  weak,  doubtfully  hardy,  unproductive.  Canes  short,  light 
brown ;  nodes  enlarged ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
bifid.  Leaves  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower 
surface  grayish-green,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  three  to  five  with 
terminal  one  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  of  medium  depth  and  width ;  basal 
sinus  shallow ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers 
self -fertile,  open  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  sometimes  double- 
shouldered,  slender,  tapering,  loose ;  brush  pale  green.  Berries  uni- 


PLATE  XXIX.  —  Vergennes  (Xf). 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  391 

form,  oval,  round,  dull,  light  and  dark  red  with  thin  bloom,  persistent, 
firm ;  skin  tough,  adherent,  slightly  astringent ;  flesh  green,  trans- 
lucent, juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  melting,  vinous  ;  very  good.  Seeds 
free,  one  to  four,  small,  broad,  plump,  brown. 

ISABELLA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Alexander,  Black  Cape,  Christie's  Improved  Isabella,  Conck- 
ling's  Wilding,  Constantia,  Dorchester,  GibVs  Grape,  Hensell's 
Long  Island,  Payne's  Early,  Ilelene,  Woodward 

Isabella  (Plate  XX)  is  now  of  little  more  than  historical  inter- 
est, it  having  been  one  of  the  mainstays  of  American  viticulture. 
In  appearance,  the  fruit  of  Isabella  is  fully  as  attractive  as  that 
of  any  black  grape,  the  clusters  being  large  and  well  formed  and 
the  berries  glossy  black  with  thick  bloom.  The  flavor  is  good, 
but  the  thick  skin  and  muskiness  in  taste  are  objectionable.  The 
grapes  keep  and  ship  well.  Isabella  is  surpassed  in  vine  char- 
acters by  many  other  kinds,  notably  Concord,  which  has  taken 
its  place.  The  lustrous  green,  ample  foliage  which  remains 
late  in  the  season,  and  the  vigor  of  the  vine,  make  this  variety 
an  attractive  ornamental,  well  adapted  for  growing  on  arbors, 
porches  and  trellises.  The  origin  of  Isabella  is  not  known. 
It  was  obtained  by  William  Prince,  Flushing,  Long  Island, 
about  1816  from  Mrs.  Isabella  Gibbs,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  short,  numerous  with 
heavy  pubescence,  thick,  light  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  in- 
ternodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  smooth,  glossy ;  lower  surface 
whitish-green,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  three  when  present  with 
terminal  lobe  obtuse ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  often  closed, 
overlapping ;  basal  sinus  usually  wanting ;  lateral  sinus  shallow, 
narrow,  frequently  notched  ;  teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self-fertile, 
open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  cylindrical, 
frequently  single-shouldered ;  pedicel  slender,  smooth ;  brush  long, 


392         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

yellowish-green.  Berries  medium  to  large,  oval,  black  with  heavy 
bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh 
pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  meaty,  some  foxi- 
ness,  sweet ;  good.  Seeds  one  to  three,  large,  broad,  distinctly  notched, 
short,  brown  with  yellow  tips. 

ISABELLA  SEEDLING 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Isabella  Seedling  is  an  early,  vigorous,  productive  offspring 
of  Isabella.  In  fruit  characters  it  greatly  resembles  its  parent, 
but  ripens  its  crop  earlier  and  has  a  more  compact  bunch. 
Like  that  of  its  parent,  the  fruit  is  of  good  quality  and  keeps 
remarkably  well.  This  seedling  is  now  grown  more  than  Isa- 
bella and,  while  not  of  any  considerable  commercial  importance, 
is  far  more  deserving  attention  as  a  market  grape  than  some  of 
the  poorly  flavored  kinds  more  generally  grown.  There  are 
several  varieties  under  this  name.  Two  are  mentioned  by 
Warder;  one  of  Ohio  and  one  of  New  York  origin.  The 
Isabella  Seedling  here  described  originated  with  G.  A.  Ensen- 
befger,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  in  1889. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  thick, 
dark  brown,  often  with  a  red  tinge,  with  thin  bloom  ;  nodes  prominent, 
flattened  ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  intermittent  or  continuous,  bifid. 
Leaves  healthy,  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  green,  dull ;  lower  surface 
pale  green  or  grayish-green,  occasionally  with  a  tinge  of  bronze, 
pubescent.  Flowers  self-fertile ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cylindrical, 
usually  single-shouldered,  loose,  compact.  Berries  large,  oval,  often 
pear-shaped,  dull  black  with  thick  bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thick 
with  some  red  pigment ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  tender,  coarse,  vinous  ; 
good.  Seeds  numerous,  free,  large,  broad,  notched,  dark  brown. 

ISRAELLA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Israella  came  from  C.  W.  Grant  contemporaneously  with 
Ion  a  and  was  heralded  as  the  earliest  good  grape  in  cultivation. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  393 

For  several  years  after  its  introduction,  it  was  widely  tried  hut 
was  almost  everywhere  discarded  because  of  the  poor  quality 
and  unattractive  appearance  of  the  fruit  and  lack  of  vigor, 
hardiness  and  productiveness  in  the  vine.  Grant  grew  Israella 
from  seed  of  Isabella  planted  in  1885. 

Vine  lacking  in  vigor,  unproductive.  Canes  slender,  dark  brown ; 
nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous, 
bifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower 
surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  five,  faint ;  petiolar 
sinus  deep,  narrow ;  teeth  shallow,  sharp  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  of  medium  length  and 
breadth,  tapering,  often  single-shouldered,  compact,  frequently  with 
many  abortive  fruits.  Berries  of  medium  size,  round-oval,  black  or 
purplish-black  with  thin  bloom,  inclined  to  drop,  soft ;  skin  thick, 
tough  with  a  large  amount  of  purplish-red  pigment;  flesh  pale  green, 
juicy,  stringy,  mild,  sweet  from  skin  to  center ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds 
free,  medium  in  size,  notched,  blunt,  light  brown,  often  covered  with 
grayish  warts. 

IVES 

(Labrusca,  ^Estivalis) 
Ives'  Madeira,  Ives'  Seedling,  Kittredge 

Ives  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  grape  for  making  red  wine, 
being  surpassed  only  by  Norton  for  this  purpose.  The  vine 
is  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous  and  fruitful.  The  fruit  is  poor  in 
quality,  colors  long  before  ripe,  has  a  foxy  odor,  and  the  flesh 
is  tough  and  pulpy.  The  bunches  are  compact,  with  well- 
formed,  jet-black  grapes,  which  make  them  attractive.  The 
vine  is  easily  propagated  and  is  adapted  to  any  good  grape  soil, 
but  is  so  rampant  in  growth  that  it  is  difficult  to  manage.  The 
variety  is  not  widely  cultivated.  Ives  \yas  grown  by  Henry 
Ives  from  seed  planted  in  1840  in  his  garden  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  thick, 
reddish-brown  with  thin  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes 
short ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper 


394         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

surface  dark  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ; 
lobes  three  to  five  when  present  with  terminal  one  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus 
deep,  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  shallow ; 
lateral  sinus  narrow  ;  teeth  shallow. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  tapering,  fre- 
quently single-shouldered,  compact,  often  with  numerous  abortive 
berries ;  pedicel  slender  with  numerous  small  warts ;  brush  short, 
slender,  pale  with  a  reddish-brown  tinge.  Berries  oval,  jet-black  with 
heavy  bloom,  very  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  adherent,  wine- 
colored  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine- 
grained, tough,  foxy;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  small,  often 
abortive,  broad,  short,  blunt,  plump,  brown. 

JAMES 

(Rotundifolia) 

James  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Rotundifolia  grapes  and 
probably  the  best  general-purpose  variety  of  this  species.  The 
vine  is  noted  for  vigor  and  productiveness.  It  cannot  be  grown 
north  of  Maryland.  It  thrives  in  sandy  loam  soils  with  clay 
subsoil.  The  variety  was  found  by  B.  W.  M.  James,  Pitt 
County,  North  Carolina.  It  was  introduced  about  1890  and 
was  placed  on  the  grape  list  of  the  American  Pomological 
Society  fruit  catalog  in  1899. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  slender,  numerous, 
long,  slightly  trailing.  Leaves  of  medium  size,  thick,  smooth,  leathery, 
cordate,  as  broad  as  long,  with  a  serrate  margin.  Flowers  open  late ; 
stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  ripens  late,  hangs  on  the  vine  for  three  weeks,  keeps  well. 
Clusters  small,  containing  from  four  to  twelve  berries,  irregular,  loose. 
Berries  large,  three-fourths  to  ono  and  one-fourth  inches  in  diameter, 
round,  blue-black,  marked  with  specks ;  skin  thick,  tough.  Pulp 
juicy,  sweet ;  good  in  quality. 

JANESVILLE 
(Labrusca,  Vulpina) 

Endowed  with  a  constitution  enabling  it  to  withstand  cold 
to  which  most  other  grapes  succumb,  Janesville  has  made  a 


VARIETIES   OF    GRAPES  395 

place  for  itself  in  far  northern  localities.  Moreover,  the  grapes 
ripen  early,  being  about  the  first  to  color  although  they  are  not 
ripe  until  some  time  after  coloring.  The  vine  also  is  healthy, 
vigorous  and  productive.  The  fruit,  however,  is  worthless 
when  better  sorts  can  be  grown.  The  clusters  ancj  berries  are 
small,  the  grapes  are  pulpy,  tough,  seedy,  have  a  thick  skin  and 
a  disagreeable  acid  taste.  Janesville  was  grown  by  F.  W. 
London,  Janesville,  Wisconsin,  from  chance  seed  planted  in  1858. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  spiny,  numerous, 
dark  brown  ;  nodes  flattened ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  intermittent 
or  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  small,  thin ;  upper  sur- 
face glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  lightly  pubescent ;  leaf 
usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow,  often 
closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  and  lateral  sinuses  lacking ;  teeth  shal- 
low. Flowers  self-fertile,  open  very  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  short,  cylindrical,  usually 
single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  covered  with  small, 
scattering  warts ;  brush  dark  wine  color.  Berries  round,  dull  black 
with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent  with 
dark  wine-colored  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  reddish-green, 
translucent,  juicy,  tough,  coarse,  vinous,  acid ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds 
adherent,  one  to  six,  large,  broad,  angular,  blunt,  dark  brown. 

JEFFERSON 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Jefferson  (Plate  XXI)  is  an  offspring  of  Concord  crossed  with 
lona,  and  resembles  Concord  in  vigor,  productiveness  and 
healthiness  of  vine,  and  lona  in  color  and  quality  of  fruit.  The 
vine  produces  its  fruit  two  weeks  later  than  Concord  and  is  not  as 
hardy,  faults  that  debar  it  from  taking  high  rank  as  a  commer- 
cial grape.  Fortunately  the  vines  yield  rgadily  to  laying  down 
for  winter  protection  so  that  even  in  commercial  plantations  it  is 
not  difficult  to  prevent  winter  injury.  The  bunches  of  Jefferson 
are  large,  well-formed,  compact  with  berries  of  uniform  size  and 
color.  The  flesh  is  firm  yet  tender,  juicy  with  a  rich,  vinous 
flavor  and  a  delicate  aroma  which  persists  even  after  the  ber- 


396        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

ries  have  dried  into  raisins.  The  fruit  ships  and  keeps  well, 
the  berries  adhering  to  the  cluster  and  the  fruit  retaining  its 
freshness  into  late  winter.  Jefferson  is  widely  distributed  and 
is  well  known  by  viticulturists  in  eastern  America.  It  is  not 
particular  as  to  localities,  if  the  season  be  long  and  the  climate 
temperate,  and  thrives  in  all  soils.  The  variety  originated  with 
J.  H.  Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York;  it  fruited  first  in  1874. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  doubtfully  hardy,  productive.  Canes 
short,  numerous,  light  to  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  round ;  inter- 
nodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  short,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
healthy  ;  upper  surface  light  green,  older  leaves  rugose  ;  lower  surface 
pale  green,  strongly  pubescent ;  leaf  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus 
acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping  ;  basal 
sinus  usually  absent ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  often  a  mere  notch ;  teeth 
regular,  shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  late  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  cylindrical,  usually 
single-shouldered,  sometimes  double-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel 
short,  slender  with  a  few  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  long,  slender, 
pale  yellowish-green.  Berries  medium  in  size,  oval,  light  and  dark  red, 
glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  very  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  free, 
slightly  astringent ;  flesh  light  green,  translucent,  juicy,  coarse-grained, 
tender,  vinous ;  good  to  best.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  broad,  short, 
blunt,  plump,  brown. 

JESSICA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Jessica  is  an  early,  hardy,  green  grape.  The  fruit  is  sweety 
rich,  sprightly  and  almost  free  from  foxiness,  but  is  unattrac- 
tive and  does  not  keep  well.  The  clusters  and  berries  are 
small,  and  the  clusters  are  too  loose  for  a  good  grape.  Jessica 
may  be  commended  for  earliness  and  hardiness  and  is,  there- 
fore, desirable,  if  at  all,  in  northern  regions.  William  H. 
Read,  Port  Dalhousie,  Ontario,  grew  Jessica  from  seed  planted 
some  time  between  1870  and  1880. 

Vine  medium  in  vigor,  healthy,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long, 
thick,  dark  brown  with  red  tinge;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  inter- 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  397 

nodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous  or  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid. 
Leaves  small ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  often  rugose ;  lower 
surface  pale  green,  very  pubescent ;  lobes  three  ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ; 
teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season ; 
stamens  upright. 

Fruit  very  early.  Clusters  small,  slender,  tapering,  usually  single- 
shouldered.  Berries  small,  round,  light  green,  often  tinged  with  yellow, 
covered  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thin,  adherent,  faintly 
astringent;  flesh  pale  green,  transparent,  juicy,  tender,  soft,  sprightly, 
sweet;  good.  Seeds 'adherent,  medium  to  broad,  notched,  brown. 

JEWEL 

(Labrusca,  Bourquiniana,  Vinifera) 

The  notable  characters  of  Jewel  are  earliness  and  high  quality 
in  fruit ;  although,  as  compared  with  Delaware,  its  parent,  the 
vine  is  vigorous,  healthy  and  hardy.  In  form  and  size  of  bunch 
and  berry,  Jewel  closely  resembles  Delaware,  but  the  grapes 
are  deep  black  in  color.  The  flesh  characters  and  flavor  of  the 
fruit  are  much  like  those  of  Delaware,  the  pulp  being  tender 
yet  firm,  and  the  flavor  having  the  same  rich,  sprightly,  vinous 
taste  found  in  the  parent.  The  seeds  are  few  and  small.  The 
skin  is  thin  but  tough,  and  the  grapes  ship  well,  keep  long,  do 
not  shell,  and  although  early,  hang  until  frost.  Jewel  is  a 
most  excellent  grape,  worthy  the  place  among  black  grapes  that 
Delaware  has  among  red  varieties.  In  particular,  it  is  recom- 
mended for  earliness  and  for  localities  in  the  North  where 
standard  varieties  do  not  ripen.  John  Burr,  Leaven  worth, 
Kansas,  grew  Jewel  from  seed  of  Delaware  planted  about  1874. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  slender,  light 
reddish-brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  scant,  thick ;  upfcer  surface  light  green, 
dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ; 
lobes  three  when  present  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ; 
basal  sinus  usually  lacking  ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self -sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  small,  slender,  cylindrical,  single-shouldered, 
compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender  ;  brush  short,  wine-colored.  Berries 


398        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

medium  in  size,  round,  dark  purplish-black,  dull  with  heavy  bloom, 
persistent,  firm;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  wine-colored  pigment; 
flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  sprightly, 
vinous,  sweet ;  very  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  frequently 
one-sided,  blunt,  light  brown. 


KENSINGTON 

(Vinifera,  Vulpina) 

Kensington  has  several  very  meritorious  fruit  and  vine 
characters.  The  vine  resembles  that  of  Clinton,  its  Vulpina 
parent,  in  vigor,  hardiness,  growth  and  productiveness,  but 
the  fruit  has  many  of  the  characters  of  the  European  parent, 
Buckland  Sweetwater.  The  grapes  are  yellowish-green,  large, 
oval  and  borne  in  loose  clusters  of  medium  size.  In  quality 
the  fruit  of  Kensington  is  not  equal  to  that  of  Buckland  Sweet- 
water  but  is  much  better  than  that  of  Clinton.  The  flesh  is 
tender  and  juicy  with  a  rich,  sweet,  vinous  flavor.  The  hardi- 
ness of  the  vine  and  the  high  quality  of  the  fruit  should  make 
Kensington  a  favorite  green  grape  in  northern  gardens.  This 
variety  was  grown  by  William  Saunders,  London,  Ontario. 
It  was  sent  out  some  time  between  1870  and  1880. 

Vine  vigorous,  ha^dy,  productive.  Canes  long,  slender,  light 
brown;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  internodes  short;  tendrils  persist- 
ent, intermittent  or  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  thin ; 
upper  surface  light  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
pubescent,  hairy  ;  lobes  wanting  or  one  to  three  with  terminus  obtuse  ; 
petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  basal  sinus  shallow  when  present ;  lateral  sinus 
shallow,  usually  a  notch;  teeth  deep  and  wide.  Flowers  self -fertile, 
open  early,  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season.  Clusters  large,  cylindrical,  often  heavily  single- 
shouldered,  loose,  frequently  with  many  undeveloped  berries ;  pedicel 
long  and  slender  with  small,  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  short,  pale 
green.  Berries  variable  in  size,  oval,  yellowish-green,  glossy  with 
thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  faintly  as- 
tringent ;  flesh  green,  transparent,  juicy,  tender,  vinous,  sweet ;  good. 
Seeds  free,  two  to  four,  wrinkled,  large,  long,  broad,  sharp-pointed, 
yellowish-brown. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  399 

KING 

(Labrusca) 

King  is  similar  to  Concord,  compared  with  which  the  vine  is 
more  vigorous  and  prolific,  time  of  ripening  and  length  of  season 
the  same,  the  clusters  are  one-fourth  larger,  the  grapes  are  more 
persistent,  the  pulp  is  more  tender,  the  flavor  nearly  the  same 
but  more  sprightly,  the  seeds  fewer  in  number,  the  wood  harder 
and  of  shorter  joints  and  the  pedicels  larger.  King  was  found 
in  the  Concord  vineyard  of  W.  K.  Munson,  Grand  Rapids, 
Michigan,  in  1892.  The  vine  was  set  for  Concord  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  bud-sport  of  that  variety. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  large,  dark  reddish- 
brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  slightly  flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils 
continuous  or  intermittent,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  unusually  large, 
thick  ;  upper  surface  green,  dull ;  lower  surface  grayish-white  changing 
to  slight  bronze,  pubescent ;  lobes  three  when  present,  terminal  one 
acute ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid- 
season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  irregu- 
larly tapering,  usually  single-shouldered,  compact.  Berries  large, 
round,  black  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  ad- 
herent, astringent ;  flesh  pale  green;  very  juicy,  tough,  stringy  and 
with  some  foxiness ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  few,  large,  short,  broad, 
lightly  notched  if  at  all,  blunt,  plump,  light  brown. 

LADY 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  vine  of  Lady  is  much  like  that  of  Concord,  its  parent, 
although  not  quite  so  vigorous  nor  productive,  but  ripens  its 
fruit  fully  two  w^eeks  earlier.  The  fruit,  is  much  superior  to 
that  of  Concord  in  quality,  being  richer,  sweeter  and  less  foxy. 
The  grapes  hang  on  the  vines  well  but  deteriorate  rapidly 
after  picking.  The  term,  "  ironclad/'  used  by  grape-growers 
to  express  hardiness  and  freedom  from  disease,  is  probably 
as  applicable  to  Lady  as  to  any  other  of  the  Labrusca  grapes. 


400        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

The  foliage  is  dense  and  of  a  deep  glossy  green,  neither  scald- 
ing under  a  hot  sun  nor  freezing  until  heavy  frosts,  making 
it  an  attractive  ornament  in  the  garden.  Lady  is  deservedly 
popular  as  a  grape  for  the  amateur  and  should  be  planted  for 
nearby  markets.  It  succeeds  wherever  Concord  is  grown,  and 
because  of  its  early  ripening  is  especially  adapted  to  northern 
latitudes  where  Concord  does  not  always  mature.  Although 
the  fruit  ripens  early,  the  buds  start  late,  often  escaping  late 
spring  frosts.  When  Lady  was  first  heard  of,  it  was  in  the 
hands  of  a  Mr.  Imlay,  Muskingum  County,  Ohio.  George 
W.  Campbell,  Delaware,  Ohio,  introduced  it  in  1874. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  medium  in  productiveness,  healthy,  Canes 
short,  slender,  dark  reddish-brown  ;  nodes  flattened  ;  internodes  short ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  bind  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size ;  upper 
surface  light  green,  glossy,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubes- 
cent ;  lobes  one  to  five  with  terminal  one  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus 
shallow,  wide  ;  lateral  sinus  variable  in  depth  and  width  ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  small,  short,  slender, 
cylindrical,  sometimes  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  thick, 
smooth ;  brush  slender,  long,  greenish-white.  Berries  large,  round, 
light  green,  often  with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  glossy  with  thin  bloom, 
persistent,  firm ;  skin  covered  with  small,  scattering,  dark  dots,  thin, 
tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  greenish- white,  translucent,  juicy, 
tender,  aromatic  ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  few,  broad,  light  brown. 

LADY  WASHINGTON 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Lady  Washington  is  in  many  respects  a  most  excellent 
grape  but  falls  short  in  quality  and  does  not  excel  in  vine  char- 
acters. The  grapes  make  a  good  appearance,  keep  and  ship 
well  and  are  tender,  juicy  and  sweet.  The  vines  are  luxuriant, 
hardy,  for  a  grape  with  Vinifera  blood,  and  healthy  although 
slightly  susceptible  to  mildew.  As  an  exhibition  grape,  few 
green  varieties  show  better  when  grown  with  care  than  Lady 
Washington.  In  the  West  and  Southwest,  the  variety  is  said 


PLATE  XXX.  —  Winchell    (X|). 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  401 

to  succeed  better  than  any  other  Concord  seedling.  Lady 
Washington  is  another  of  J.  H.  Ricketts'  fine  seedlings,  this 
variety  having  come  from  seed  of  Concord  fertilized  by  Allen's 
Hybrid.  It  was  introduced  in  1878. 

Vine  vigorous,  productive.  Canes  long,  few,  thick,  dark  brown ; 
nodes  greatly  enlarged,  variable  in  shape ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils 
continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface 
dark  green,  older  leaves  strongly  rugose,  glossy ;  lower  surface  pale 
green,  pubescent ;  leaf  entire  with  terminal  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  deep, 
narrow,  frequently  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  usually  want- 
ing ;  lateral  sinus  shallow ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self- 
fertile,  open  in  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  broad, 
irregularly  cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  frequently  double-shouldered, 
loose ;  pedicel  short  with  numerous  conspicuous  warts ;  brush  very 
short,  greenish.  Berries  variable  in  size,  round-oblate,  yellow-amber, 
glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thin,  tender,  adherent ;  flesh 
pale  green,  transparent,  juicy  and  tender,  stringy,  aromatic,  sweet ; 
very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  broad,  brown. 

LENOIR 

(Bourquiniana) 

Alabama,  Black  El  Paso,  Black  July,  Black  Spanish,  Blue 
French,  Burgundy,  Cigar  Box  Grape,  Devereaux,  Jack, 
Jacques,  July  Sherry,  LongwortWs  Ohio,  MacCandless,  Ohio, 
Springstein,  Warren 

Lenoir  is  a  tender  southern  grape  which  has-been  used  largely 
in  France  and  California  as  a  resistant  stock  and  a  direct 
producer.  The  fruit  is  highly  valued  for  its  dark  red  wine  and 
is  very  good  for  table  use.  The  vine  is  very  resistant  to  phyl- 
loxera and  withstands  drouth  well.  Th6*  origin  of  Lenoir  is 
unknown.  It  was  in  cultivation  in  the  South  as  long  ago  as 
the  early  part  of  the  last  century.  Nicholas  Herbemont 
states  in  1829  that  its  name  was  given  from  a  man  named 
Lenoir  who  cultivated  it  near  Stateburg,  South  Carolina. 

2D 


402        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Vine  vigorous,  thrifty,  semi-hardy,  productive.  Canes  numerous, 
with  some  bloom  at  the  nodes;  tendrils  intermittent.  Leaves  from 
two  to  seven-lobed,  usually  five,  with  characteristic  bluish-green  color 
above  and  pale  green  below. 

Clusters  variable,  medium  to  very  large,  tapering,  usually  shoul- 
dered. Berries  small,  round,  dark  bluish-purple,  nearly  black  with  lilac 
bloom ;  skin  thick,  tough ;  flesh  juicy,  tender,  sweet,  very  rich  in 
coloring  matter. 

LIGNAN  BLANC 

(Vinifera) 
White  July,  Luglienga,  Joannenc 

At  Geneva,  New  York,  Lignan  Blanc  ripens  first  of  all 
grapes,  native  or  European.  It  is  not  of  highest  quality  but 
is  better  than  any  other  early  grape  and  makes  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  home  vineyard.  It  is  a  favorite  grape  in  Europe 
and  is  rather  commonly  grown  in  California.  This  variety 
offers  excellent  material  for  hybridization  with  native  grapes. 

Vine  vigorous,  medium  productive ;  buds  open  early ;  opening 
leaves  light  green,  glossy,  tinged  with  red  along  the  edges,  thinly 
pubescent.  Leaves  medium  in  size,  roundish,  somewhat  dull  green, 
slightly  rugose  ;  lower  surface  glabrous  ;  blade  thick  ;  lobes  usually  five 
though  sometimes  three ;  petiolar  sinus  medium  in  depth,  wide  ;  lower 
lateral  sinus  medium  in  depth,  narrow ;  upper  lateral  sinus  shallow,  nar- 
row ;  margin  dentate  ;  teeth  long,  narrow.  Flowers  appear  early  for  a 
Vinifera ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  ripens  the  first  of  September  and  is  a  good  keeper ;  clusters 
above  medium  in  size,  tapering,  medium  compact ;  berries  medium  to 
large,  oval,  yellowish-green,  with  thin  bloom ;  skin  thin,  tender, 
neutral ;  flesh  greenish-white,  firm,  juicy,  meaty,  sweet ;  quality  good. 

LlNDLEY 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

By  common  consent,  Lindley  (Plate  XXII)  is  the  best  of  the 
red  grapes  originated  by  Rogers  in  his  crosses  between  La- 
brusca and  Vinifera.  The  bunches  are  of  onlv  medium  size  and 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  403 

are  loose,  but  the  berries  are  well-formed,  of  uniform  size  and  an 
attractive  dark  red  color.  The  flesh  is  firm,  fine-grained,  juicy, 
tender  with  a  peculiarly  rich  aromatic  flavor.  The  skin  is 
thick  and  tough  but  is  not  objectionable  in  fruit  fully  ripe. 
The  fruit  keeps  and  ships  well,  and  the  berries  neither  crack 
nor  shatter.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  for  a  Vinifera 
hybrid,  healthy  but,  as  with  most  of  its  kind,  susceptible  to 
mildew.  The  chief  defects  of  Lindley  are  self-sterility,  preca- 
riousness  in  bearing  and  lack  of  adaptation  to  many  soils. 
Lindley  is  a  general  favorite  in  the  garden.  In  1869  Rogers 
gave  this  grape  its  name  in  honor  of  John  Lindley,  the  English 
botanist. 

Vine  vigorous,  usually  hardy,  susceptible  to  mildew.  Canes  very 
long,  dark  reddish-brown  with  thin  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  usually 
flattened ;  internodes  long,  thick ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or 
trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  slightly 
rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish-white,  pubescent ;  obscurely  three-lobed 
with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  often  closed  and 
overlapping  ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self -sterile,  open  in  mid-season  ; 
stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  long,  broad, 
cylindrical,  frequently  single-shouldered,  the  shoulder  being  connected 
to  the  bunch  by  a  long  stem,  loose ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  smooth ; 
brush  short,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  round-oval,  dark-red  with 
faint  bloom ;  skin  tough,  adherent,  unpigmented,  strongly  astringent ; 
flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  vinous; 
good  to  best.  Seeds  adherent,  two  to  five,  notched,  brown. 

LUCILE 

(Labrusca) 

In  vigor,  health,  hardiness  and  productiveness,  Lucile  (Plate 
XXII)  is  not  surpassed  by  any  native  gra*pe.  Unfortunately, 
the  fruit  characters  are  not  so  desirable.  The  size,  form  and 
color  of  bunches  and  berries  are  good,  making  a  very  attractive 
fruit,  but  the  grapes  have  an  obnoxious,  foxy  taste  and  odor  and 
are  pulpy  and  seedy.  Lucile  is  earlier  than  Concord,  the  crop 


404        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

ripening  with  that  of  Worden  or  preceding  it  a  few  days. 
For  .an  early  variety,  the  fruit  keeps  well  and  in  spite  of  thin 
skin  ships  well.  The  vine  thrives  in  all  grape  soils.  Lucile 
may  be  recommended  where  a  hardy  grape  is  desired  and  for 
localities  in  which  the  season  is  short.  J.  A.  Putnam,  Fredonia, 
New  York,  grew  Lucile.  The  vine  fruited  first  in  1890.  It  is 
a  seedling  of  Wyoming,  which  it  resembles  in  fruit  and  vine 
and  surpasses  in  both. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive.  Canes  long,  light  brown ; 
nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid 
or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  firm ;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy, 
smooth  ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  leaf  with  terminus  acute  ; 
petiolar  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ; 
basal  sinus  usually  absent ;  lateral  sinus  a  notch  when  present ;  teeth 
shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cylindrical, 
usually  single-shouldered,  very  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick  with 
few,  small,  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  light  brown.  Berries  large, 
round,  dark  red  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tender, 
astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  stringy,  foxy ; 
fair  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  small,  broad,  short, 
blunt,  dark  brown. 

LUTIE 

(Labrusca) 

Lutie  (Plate  XXIII)  is  chiefly  valuable  for  its  vine  characters. 
The  vines  are  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  fruitful,  although 
scarcely  equaling  Lucile  in  any  of  these  characters.  Pomologists 
differ  widely  as  to  the  merits  of  the  fruit,  some  claiming  high 
quality  for  it  and  others  declaring  that  it  is  no  better  than  a 
wild  Labrusca.  The  difference  of  opinion  is  due  to  a  pecul- 
iarity of  the  fruit;  if  eaten  fresh,  the  quality,  while  far  from 
being  of  the  best,  is  not  bad,  but  after  being  picked  for  several 
days  it  develops  so  much  foxiness  of  flavor  and  aroma  that 
it  is  scarcely  edible.  Lutie  is  a  seedling  found  by  L.  C. 
Chisholm,  Spring  Hill,  Tennessee.  It  was  introduced  in  1885. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  405 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  short,  slender, 
dark  reddish-brown;  nodes  enlarged;  internodes  short;  tendrils 
continuous,  short,  bifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size ;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  rugose ;  lower  surface  bronze  or  whitish-green,  pubescent ;  leaf 
usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  wide ; 
basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow  and  narrow  when  present ; 
teeth  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self-fertile,  early ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  short, 
broad,  blunt,  cylindrical,  usually  not  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel 
short  with  small,  scattering  warts  ;  brush  slender,  pale  green.  Berries 
large,  round,  dark  red,  dull  with  thin  bloom,  drop  badly  from  pedicel, 
firm ;  skin  tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  tough,  foxy;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four, 
large,  broad,  short  and  blunt,  dark  brown. 


MALAGA 

(Vinifera) 

Malaga  is  one  of  the  favorite  table-grapes  in  California  and 
also  a  popular  grape  to  ship  to  eastern  markets.  In  some 
parts  of  southern  California,  where  the  Muscats  do  not  thrive, 
it  is  much  grown,  and  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  it  is  rather 
largely  used  in  making  raisins.  It  requires  a  long  season  and 
probably  could  not  be  grown  in  eastern  regions  except  in  the 
most  favored  localities.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive ;  wood  reddish-brown, 
short-jointed.  Leaves  of  medium  size,  smooth,  leathery  ;  light  glossy 
green  above,  lighter  below ;  deeply  lobed.  Bunches  very  large,  long, 
loose,  shouldered,  sometimes  scraggly  ;  stem  long  and  flexible ;  berries 
very  large,  oval,  yellowish-green,  covered  with  light  bloom ;  skin 
thick;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  sweet  and  rich;  quality  good.  Season  late, 
keeps  and  ships  well. 

+ 

McPlKE 

(Labrusca) 

McPike  is  noteworthy  because  of  the  large  size  of  the  berries 
and  bunches.  It  is  very  similar  to  its  parent,  Worden,  differ- 


406         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

ing  in  having  fewer  but  larger  berries,  grapes  not  as  high  in 
flavor  and  fewer  and  smaller  seeds.  Because  of  the  thin,  tender 
skin,  the  berries  crack  badly.  The  grapes  shell  more  or  less, 
and  the  vines  are  less  productive  than  those  of  Worden.  The 
faults  named  debar  it  from  becoming  a  commercial  grape 
and  it  is  not  high  enough  in  quality  to  make  it  of  value  for 
the  amateur.  This  variety  originated  with  H.  G.  McPike, 
Alton,  Illinois,  from  seed  of  Worden  planted  in  1890. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive.  Canes  of  medium  length, 
dull  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  very 
short;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick; 
upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish-white, 
heavily  pubescent ;  leaf  entire  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus 
deep  ;  basal  and  lateral  sinuses  lacking.  Flowers  nearly  self -fertile. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size,  broad, 
irregularly  tapering,  usually  not  shouldered ;  pedicel  long,  thick, 
smooth  ;  brush  long,  slender,  green  with  brown  tinge.  Berries  unusu- 
ally large,  round,  purplish-black  with  heavy  bloom,  firm ;  skin  cracks, 
adherent  to  pulp,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy, 
tender,  stringy,  vinous ;  fair  to  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four, 
short,  broad,  blunt,  plump,  light  brown. 


MARION 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 
Black  German,  Marion  Port 

Marion  so  closely  resembles  Clinton  in  botanical  and  horti- 
cultural characters  as  to  be  clearly  of  the  same  type.  The 
vine  is  vigorous  and  hardy,  but  hardly  sufficiently  productive, 
and  is  susceptible  to  mildew  and  leaf-hoppers.  The  fruit 
is  pleasantly  sweet  and  spicy,  although  not  high  enough  in 
quality  for  a  table-grape,  but  makes  a  very  good  dark  red  wine. 
The  fruit  colors  early  but  ripens  late,  hangs  well  on  the  vines 
and  improves  with  a  touch  of  frost.  Marion  was  brought 
to  notice  by  a  Mr.  Shepherd,  Marion,  Ohio,  about  1850. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  407 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  very  long,  dark  reddish- 
brown,  covered  with  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes 
very  long;  tendrils  continuous,  sometimes  intermittent,  long,  bifid. 
Leaves  very  large ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy ;  lower  surface 
pale  green,  smooth ;  leaf  entire,  terminus  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus 
very  deep,  narrow,  often  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  and  lateral 
sinuses  usually  lacking ;  teeth  shallow,  wide.  Flowers  self-sterile, 
open  very  early  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  short, 
slender,  cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender 
with  a  few  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  very  short,  wine-colored. 
Berries  small,  round,  black,  glossy  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ; 
skin  thin,  tough,  adherent  with  much  wine-colored  pigment,  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  dark  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tough,  sprightly, 
spicy,  tart ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  five,  medium  in 
size,  broad,  short,  very  plump,  brown. 


MARTHA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Martha  was  at  one  time  a  popular  green  grape,  but  the 
introduction  of  superior  varieties  has  reduced  its  popularity 
until  now  it  is  but  little  grown.  It  is  a  seedling  of  Concord 
and  resembles  its  parent,  differing  chiefly  as  follows :  fruit 
green,  a  week  earlier,  bunch  and  berry  smaller,  flavor  far 
better,  being  sweeter,  more  delicate  and  less  foxy.  The  vine 
of  Martha  is  a  lighter  shade  of  green,  is  less  robust,  and  the 
blossoms  open  a  few  days  earlier  than  those  of  Concord.  One 
of  the  defects  of  Martha,  and  the  chief  cause  of  its  going  out 
of  favor,  is  that  it  does  not  keep  nor  ship  well.  The  variety 
is  still  being  planted  in  the  South  but  is  generally  abandoned 
in  the  North.  Samuel  Miller,  Calmdale,  Pennsylvania,  grew 
Martha  from  seed  of  Concord ;  it  was  introduced  about  1868. 

Vine  hardy,  productive,  susceptible  to  attacks  of  mildew.  Canes 
long,  dark  reddish-brown,  surface  with  thin  bloom,  roughened ;  nodes 
enlarged,  slightly  flattened  ;  tendrils  continuous,  or  intermittent,  bifid. 
Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green ;  lower  surface  light 


408        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

bronze,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting  or  faint ;  petiolar  sinus 
shallow,  very  wide ;  teeth  irregular.  Flowers  self-fertile,  open  in 
mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early  mid-season.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  tapering,  single- 
shouldered,  loose;  pedicel  short,  slender;  brush  very  short,  green. 
Berries  medium  in  size,  round,  light  green  with  thin  bloom,  persistent ; 
skin  thin,  very  tender,  adherent ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  tough,  fine- 
grained, slightly  foxy ;  very  good.  Seeds  few  in  number,  adherent, 
broad,  blunt,  dark  brown. 


MASSASOIT 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Massasoit  is  distinguished  as  the  earliest  of  Rogers'  hybrids, 
ripening  with  Delaware.  The  grapes  have  the  peculiarity 
of  being  best  before  full  maturity,  developing,  after  ripening, 
a  degree  of  foxiness  which  impairs  the  quality.  In  shape  and 
size  of  berry  and  bunch,  there  is  a  striking  resemblance  to 
Isabella,  but  the  color  is  that  of  Catawba.  The  texture  of 
the  fruit  is  especially  good,  firm  but  tender  and  juicy,  while 
the  flavor  is  rich  and  sweet.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  and 
productive  but  subject  to  mildew  and  rot.  Massasoit  is  worth 
a  place  in  the  home  vineyard  and  as  an  early  grape  of  fine 
quality  for  local  markets. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very  productive,  subject  to  rot  and 
mildew.  Canes  long,  thick,  dark  brown  with  reddish  tinge ;  nodes 
enlarged,  flattened  ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves 
variable  in  size ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  sur- 
face pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  three  to  five  with  terminus  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow :  basal  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  obscure ; 
teeth  shallow.  Flowers  self-sterile,  open  late  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size,  broad,  cylin- 
drical, frequently  single-shouldered ;  pedicel  slender  with  a  few  in- 
distinct warts ;  brush  pale  green.  Berries  large,  round-oval,  dark 
brownish-red,  dull  with  thin  bloom,  very  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin, 
tender,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy, 
fine-grained,  soft,  stringy,  foxy ;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds  adherent, 
one  to  five,  large,  broad,  distinctly  notched,  plump,  blunt. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  409 

MAXATAWNEY  ^ 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

While  at  one  time  very  popular,  grape-growers  now  seldom 
hear  of  Maxatawney.  It  is  a  southern  grape,  ripening  its 
fruit  in  the  North  only  occasionally.  The  variety  is  interesting 
historically  as  being  the  first  good  green  grape  and  as  showing 
unmistakable  Vinifera  characters,  another  example  of  the 
fortuitous  hybridization  which  gave  so  many  valuable  varieties 
before  artificial  hybridization  of  Vinifera  with  native  grapes 
had  been  tried.  In  1843,  a  man  living  in  Eagleville,  Pennsyl- 
vania, received  several  bunches  of  grapes  from  Maxatawney. 
The  seeds  of  these  grapes  were  planted  and  one  grew,  the  result- 
ing plant  being  the  original  vine  of  Maxatawney. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  variable  in  productiveness. 
Canes  medium  in  length,  slender,  reddish ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ; 
internodes  short;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  dark 
green,  thick ;  lower  surface  grayish-white  with  tinge  of  bronze,  heavily 
pubescent ;  lobes  three  to  five  ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self -sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small  to  medium,  short,  slender, 
cylindrical,  occasionally  with  a  small,  single  shoulder,  compact; 
pedicel  long,  slender,  warty ;  brush  long,  yellow.  Berries  variable  in 
size,  oval,  pale  red  or  dull  green  with  amber  tinge,  with  thin  bloom, 
persistent ;  skin  tough,  astringent ;  flesh  tender,  foxy ;  good  to  very 
good.  Seeds  free,  few,  large,  very  broad,  blunt. 

MEMORY 

(Rotundifolia) 

Memory  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  Rotundifolia  grapes  for 
the  garden  and  local  markets,  its  fruits  being  especially  good 
for  dessert.  As  yet,  however,  the  variety  has  not  been  widely 
distributed  even  in  North  Carolina  where  it  originated.  The 
vine  is  given  credit  for  being  the  most  vigorous  grower  and 
the  most  productive  of  the  grapes  of  its  species.  Memory 
is  probably  a  seedling  of  Thomas,  which  it  much  resembles, 


410        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

having  b^n  found  in  a  vineyard  of  Thomas  grapes  near  White- 
ville,  North  Carolina,  by  T.  S.  Memory,  about  1868. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  healthy,  productive.  Leaves  large,  longer 
than  broad,  thick,  smooth  with  coarsely  serrate  margins.  Flowers 
perfect. 

Fruit  ripens  in  September  in  North  Carolina ;  clusters  large,  with 
from  four  to  twelve  berries  which  hang  unusually  well  for  a  variety  of 
V.  Rotundifolia.  Berries  very  large,  round-oblong,  deep  brownish- 
black,  almost  jet  black ;  skin  thick ;  flesh  tender,  juicy,  sweet ;  good 
to  best. 

MERRIMAC 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Merrimac  is  often  accredited  as  the  best  black  grape  among 
Rogers'  hybrids,  but  an  analysis  of  the  characters  of  the  several 
black  varieties  grown  by  Rogers  shows  that  it  is  surpassed 
by  Wilder,  Herbert  and  possibly  Barry.  The  vine  is  strong 
in  growth,  productive,  hardy  and  exempt  from  fungal  diseases ; 
but  the  grapes  are  not  high  in  quality,  and  flesh,  skin  and 
seed  characters  are  such  that  the  fruit  is  not  as  pleasant  to 
eat  as  the  other  black  varieties  named.  Merrimac  is  worthy 
a  place  in  collections  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Rogers  gave  this 
variety  the  name  Merrimac  in  1869. 

Vine  vigorous,  usually  hardy,  productive.  Canes  slender,  dark 
brown,  surface  roughened;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  internodes 
short;  tendrils  intermittent,  short,  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thin;  upper 
surface  very  light  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
pubescent  and  cobwebby ;  lobes  three  with  terminal  one  obtuse ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal 
sinus  usually  lacking;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  teeth  shallow. 
Flowers  self-sterile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  variable  in  size, 
broad,  tapering ;  pedicel  slender,  covered  with  numerous  inconspicuous 
warts ;  brush  wine-colored.  Berries  large,  round,  black,  glossy  with 
abundant  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent,  astrin- 
gent ;  flesh  light  green,  translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  stringy ; 
good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  five,  broad,  long,  with  enlarged  neck, 
brown. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  411 

MILLS 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  bunches  and  berries  of  Mills  are  large  and  well-formed ; 
the  berries  are  firm  and  solid,  with  the  skin  adherent  as  in  Vi- 
niferas ;  the  flesh  is  juicy  and  parts  readily  from  the  seeds ;  the 
flavor  is  rich,  sweet  and  vinous ;  and  the  grapes  are  hardly 
surpassed  in  keeping  quality.  But  when  the  fruit  characters 
of  Mills  have  been  praised,  nothing  further  can  be  said  in  its 
favor.  The  vines  are  neither  vigorous,  hardy  nor  fruitful  and 
are  very  subject  to  mildew ;  neither  wood  nor  roots  ripen  well 
in  the  North  in  average  seasons ;  and  the  variety  is  a  most 
difficult  one  for  nurserymen  to  grow.  Mills  is  of  doubtful 
commercial  value,  but  for  the  garden  it  is  possible  that  the 
grower  may  be  able  to  graft  it  to  advantage  on  some  variety 
with  better  vine  characters.  William  H.  Mills,  Hamilton, 
Ontario,  grew  Mills  about  1870  from  seed  of  Muscat  Hamburg 
fertilized  by  Creveling. 

Vine  medium  in  vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness.  Canes  long, 
thick,  light  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  dull, 
rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  cobwebby ;  lobes  three  to  five  with 
terminus  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  intermediate  in  depth  and  width ;  basal 
and  lateral  sinuses  deep  and  wide ;  teeth  deep.  Flowers  self -fertile, 
open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  slender,  cy- 
lindrical, often  double-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender  with  nu- 
merous, small  warts ;  brush  long,  wine-colored.  Berries  large,  oval, 
jet-black  with  abundant  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough, 
adherent ;  flesh  light  green,  translucent,  juicy,  rich,  tender,  sprightly, 
vinous,  sweet ;  very  good  to  best.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  large,  brown. 

.» 
MlSH 

(Rotundifolia) 

Mish  is  a  favorite  Rotundifolia  in  North  Carolina,  being 
planted  extensively  in  some  parts  of  that  state.  Its  outstand- 


412        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING 

ing  characters  are  vigor  and  productiveness  in  vine  and  high 
quality  in  the  fruit.  Mish  is  named  by  many  as  the  best  all- 
round  Rotundifolia,  being  of  value  for  dessert,  wine  and  grape- 
juice.  The  variety  was  found  by  W.  M.  Mish,  about  1846, 
near  Washington,  North  Carolina. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  productive,  healthy,  open  in  growth ;  canes 
somewhat  trailing.  Leaves  large,  round,  thick,  smooth,  leathery  with 
coarsely  dentate  margin.  Flowers  perfect. 

Fruit  late,  does  not  ripen  uniformly,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters 
of  medium  size  with  from  six  to  fifteen  berries  which  cling  well  to  the 
pedicel.  Berries  of  medium  size,  round-oval,  deep  reddish-black 
with  numerous  conspicuous  dots ;  skin  thin,  cracking  in  wet  weather ; 
flesh  tender,  juicy,  sweet,  exceptionally  well  flavored ;  very  good  to 
best. 

MISSION 

(Vinifera) 

Of  all  grapes,  Mission  has  probably  played  the  most  impor- 
tant part  in  the  vineyards  of  California.  Grown  from  the 
earliest  times  at  the  old  missions,  its  source  or  its  name  has 
never  been  determined.  Its  viticultural  value  for  table  and 
wine-press  was  early  appreciated  by  California  grape-growers, 
and  its  culture  rapidly  spread  to  every  county  in  the  state 
adapted  to  grape-growing.  With  vines  vigorous,  healthy  and 
productive,  bearing  grapes  of  delicious  quality,  Mission  is 
a  mainstay  on  the  Pacific  slope,  surpassed  by  few  vineyard 
varieties  for  general  usefulness.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  productive;  wood  short- join  ted,  grayish- 
brown,  dull,  dark.  Leaf  medium  to  large,  slightly  oblong,  with  large, 
deeply-cut  compound  teeth ;  basal  sinus  widely  opened,  primary 
sinuses  narrow  and  shallow;  smooth  on  both  sides  with  scattered 
fyDmentum  below,  bright  green  above,  lighter  below.  Bunch  divided 
into  many  small,  distinct  lateral  clusters,  shouldered,  loose,  sometimes 
very  loose ;  berries  of  medium  size,  purple  or  almost  black  with  heavy 
bloom ;  skin  thin ;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  delicious. 
Seeds  rather  large  and  prominent ;  season  late. 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  413 

MISSOURI  RIESLING 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Missouri  Riesling  attains  perfection  only  in  the  South. 
The  vines  are  hardy,  vigorous,  productive  and  healthy  in  the 
North,  as  a  rule,  but  the  fruit  is  lacking  in  quality.  In  the 
South,  Missouri  Riesling  is  a  beautiful  fruit  when  well  grown 
and  has  many  good  qualities  of  fruit  and  vine.  It  originated 
with  Nicholas  Grein,  Hermann,  Missouri,  about  1870,  probably 
from  seed  of  Taylor. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  very  long,  numerous, 
thick,  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  contin- 
uous, long,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  large,  thick;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  thinly  pubescent ; 
lobes  five  with  terminal  one  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ; 
basal  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  lateral  sinus  deep,  wide ;  teeth  deep,  wide. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  does  not  keep  nor  ship  well.  Clusters  short,  cylin- 
drical, single-shouldered;  pedicel  long  with  few  small  warts;  brush 
green.  Berries  of  medium  size,  round,  yellowish-green  changing  to 
light  red  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  sprinkled  with  small 
brown  dots,  thin,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  trans- 
lucent, juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  lacking  in  aroma,  mild;  fair  in 
quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  surface  rough,  dark  brown. 


MONTEFIORE 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Montefiore  is  extensively  grown  in  Missouri  and  the  South- 
west but  is  almost  unknown  in  the  North  and  East.  It  is 
reported  as  succeeding  in  the  Lake  District  of  Ohio  and,  with 
the  exception  that  it  is  uncertain  in  bearing  and  not  always 
productive,  it  grows  well  in  sections  of  New  York.  While  it 
is  essentially  a  wine-grape,  yet  it  is  pleasing  in  taste  and  texture 
of  fruit  and  is  far  better  in  quality  than  many  of  the  coarser 
Labruscas  commonly  cultivated.  It  keeps  and  ships  well 


414        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

and  presents  an  attractive  appearance.  Jacob  Rommel, 
Morrison,  Missouri,  grew  this  variety  about  1875  from  seed 
of  Taylor  fertilized  by  Ives. 

Vine  vigorous  and  hardy.  Canes  long,  thick,  dark  brown  with  thin 
bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  long ;  tendrils  contin- 
uous, long,  bifid.  Leaves  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  grayish-white,  pubescent ;  lobes  three  when 
present  with  terminus  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  wide  ;  basal  sinus  lacking  ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow  when  present ;  teeth  deep.  Flowers  semi-fertile, 
open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  short,  tapering, 
single-shouldered,  the  shoulder  being  connected  to  the  bunch  by  a  long 
stem,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender,  smooth ;  brush  red.  Berries 
small,  oval,  often  compressed,  black,  glossy  with  abundant  bloom,  per- 
sistent, firm;  skin  thin,  tough,  adherent,  astringent;  flesh  green, 
translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  melting,  vinous,  sweet ;  fair 
to  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  small,  broad,  faintly  notched,  short, 
plump,  brown. 

MOORE  EARLY 
(Labrusca) 

Moore  Early  (Plate  XXIV)  is  the  standard  grape  of  its  season. 
Its  fruit  cannot  be  described  better  than  as  an  early  Concord. 
The  vines  are  readily  distinguishable  from  those  of  Concord, 
differing  chiefly  in  being  less  productive.  To  grow  the  variety 
satisfactorily,  the  soil  must  be  rich,  well-drained  and  loose, 
must  be  frequently  cultivated,  and  the  vines  should  be  pruned 
severely.  The  bunches  of  Moore  Early  are  not  as  large  as 
those  of  Concord  and  are  less  compact ;  the  berries  shell  rather 
more  easily,  and  the  skin  cracks  more  readily.  The 
flesh  characters  and  the  flavor  are  essentially  those  of  Con- 
cord, although  the  quality  is  not  as  high  as  in  the  older  variety. 
The  quality  is,  however,  much  higher  than  that  of  Champion 
and  Hartford,  its  chief  competitors,  and  varieties  which  it 
should  replace.  Moore  Early  is  by  no  means  an  ideal  grape 
for  its  season,  but  until  something  better  is  introduced  it  will 
probably  remain  the  best  early  commercial  sort.  Captain 


VARIETIES   OF    GRAPES  415 

John  B.  Moore,  Concord,  Massachusetts,  originated  this  vari- 
ety from  seed  of  Concord,  planted  about  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  unproductive.  Canes  short,  dark  reddish- 
brown  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  contin- 
uous, bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green, 
dull ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ;  leaf 
usually  not  lobed,  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  wide ;  basal  sinus 
lacking ;  lateral  sinus  a  notch  when  present ;  teeth  shallow,  narrow. 
Flowers  fertile,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  length, 
and  breadth,  cylindrical,  sometimes  single-shouldered,  loose;  pedicel 
short,  thick,  smooth ;  brush  short,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  round, 
purplish-black,  firm ;  skin  tender,  adherent ;  flesh  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  fine-grained,  tough  with  slight  foxiness ;  fair  to  good.  Seeds 
one  to  four,  large,  broad,  plump,  blunt,  brown  with  yellow  tinge  at  tips. 

MOSCATELLO 

(Vinifera) 
Moscatello  Nero.     Black  Muscat 

Beautiful  in  appearance  and  having  a  delicate  Muscat 
taste  and  aroma,  this  variety  is  one  of  the  good  table-grapes  of 
the  Pacific  slope.  Unfortunately  it  ripens  so  late  that  it  is 
hardly  worth  trying  in  the  East.  The  variety  has  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  very  productive.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  very  productive.  Leaves  of  medium  size, 
with  deep  upper  and  shallow  lower  sinuses ;  glabrous  above,  slightly 
downy  below,  very  hairy  on  the  veins,  with  long,  sharp  teeth.  Bunch 
large  to  very  large,  long,  loose,  conico-cylindrical,  winged;  berries 
very  large,  borne  on  long  slender  pedicels,  dark  purple,  almost  black ; 
skin  thin  but  tough ;  flesh  rather  soft,  juicy ;  flavor  sweet,  rich, 
aromatic,  musky ;  quality  very  good.  Season  late,  does  not  keep  well. 

MOYER 

(Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 
Jordan,  Moyer's  Early  Red 

Moyer  is  almost  a  counterpart  of  its  parent,  Delaware. 
Were  it  not  that  the  variety  is  from  one  to  two  weeks  earlier 


416        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

than  Delaware,  and  somewhat  hardier,  hence  better  adapted 
for  cold  regions,  it  could  have  no  place  in  viticulture.  Com- 
pared with  Delaware,  the  vine  is  hardly  as  vigorous  and  is 
less  productive,  but  is  freer  from  rot  and  mildew.  The  bunches 
are  much  like  those  of  Delaware  but  have  the  fault  of  setting 
fruit  imperfectly  even  when  cross-pollination  is  assured;  the 
berries  are  a  little  larger,  of  much  the  same  color  and  of  like 
flavor,  rich,  sweet,  with  pure  vinousness  and  without  a  trace 
of  foxiness.  The  fruit  keeps  well,  ships  well  and  does  not  crack 
nor  shell.  Moyer  is  well  established  in  Canada,  proving  per- 
fectly hardy  wherever  Concord  is  grown,  possibly  standing 
even  more  cold.  W.  H.  Read,  Port  Dalhousie,  Ontario, 
raised  the  original  vine  of  Moyer,  about  1880,  from  seed  of 
Delaware  fertilized  by  Miller's  Burgundy. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  unproductive.  Canes  numerous, 
slender,  dull,  dark  reddish-brown;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  inter- 
nodes  short ;  tendrils  continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  small ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green  or  with 
faint  blue  tinge,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  two  to  five  with  terminus 
acute ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow ;  basal  sinus  shallow  when  present ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  teeth  very  shallow,  narrow.  Flowers 
self -sterile,  open  early ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well  but  loses  color  if  kept  too  long.  Clusters 
small,  short,  slender,  tapering,  sometimes  single-shouldered ;  pedicel 
short  with  small  warts  ;  brush  yellowish-green.  Berries  small,  oblate, 
dark  red  with  faint  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  free,  astrin- 
gent; flesh  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  vinous;  good  to 
very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  four,  broad,  short,  very  blunt,  brown 
with  yellow  tinge  at  tips. 

MUSCATEL 

(Vinifera) 
White  Frontignan 

This  old  and  standard  sort  is  rather  commonly  grown  in 
some  of  the  grape  regions  of  California  to  follow  Chasselas 


PLATE  XXXI.  —  Worden  (Xf ). 


VARIETIES  OF   GRAPES  417 

Golden.     It  might  be  tried  with  some  show  of  success  in  favored 
grape  regions  in  the  East.     The  description  is  compiled. 

Vine  of  medium  size,  vigorous,  healthy ;  canes  strong,  spreading, 
reddish-brown  with  short  internodes.  Leaves  of  medium  size,  thin, 
five-lobed ;  glabrous  except  on  the  lower  sides  of  the  well-marked  ribs 
where  a  few  hairs  show.  Bunches  long,  cylindrical,  regular,  compact ; 
berries  round,  golden-yellow  becoming  amber ;  flavor  sweet,  rich, 
aromatic,  peculiar ;  quality  very  good.  Season  late  mid-season,  keeps 
and  ships  well. 

MUSCAT  HAMBURG 

(Vinifera) 

Muscat  Hamburg  (Plate  XXV)  is  an  old  European  grape  well 
known  in  some  parts  of  America  in  greenhouse  graperies,  since 
it  is  one  of  the  best  for  forcing.  All  who  know  the  beautiful 
fruits  of  this  variety  grown  in  forcing-houses  will  want  to  test 
it  out  of  doors,  where  at  the  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment 
Station,  they  have  done  well,  many  clusters  attaining  a 
weight  of  a  pound  and  a  half  to  two  pounds.  The  accom- 
panying plate,  the  fruit  much  less  than  half  natural  size, 
shows  what  a  fine  grape  Muscat  Hamburg  is.  One  is  struck 
with  wondering  admiration  at  a  vine  laden  with  these  grapes 
growing  alongside  Concord,  Niagara  or  Delaware.  The  quality 
is  delectable,  the  quintessence  of  the  flavors  and  aromas  which 
make  the  grape  a  favorite  fruit.  The  grapes  keep  long  and 
retain  their  form,  size,  color  and  rich,  delicate  flavor  almost  to 
the  end.  This  variety  is  a  treasure  to  the  amateur;  and  the 
professional  who  wants  another  grape  for  local  markets  should 
try  grafting  over  a  few  vines  of  some  native  to  this  sort,  fol- 
lowing the  directions  given  in  Chapter  X  in  caring  for  the 
vines. 

Vines  vigorous,  tender,  need  protection  during  the  winter ;  canes 
long,  numerous,  slender  to  medium,  light  brown,  darker  at  the  nodes 
which  are  enlarged  and  flattened.  Leaves  medium  to  large,  inter- 
mediate in  thickness ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull ;  lower  surface 
pale  green,  faintly  pubescent,  densely  hairy. 

2E 


418        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit  ripens  in  October,  ships  and  keeps  well ;  clusters  very 
large,  long,  broad,  tapering,  single  or  double-shouldered.  Berries  large, 
firm,  oval,  very  dark  purplish-red,  covered  with  lilac  bloom,  very 
persistent ;  skin  thick,  adheres  strongly  to  the  pulp  ;  flesh  pale  green, 
translucent,  meaty,  very  juicy,  tender,  vinous,  musky,  sweet,  rich  ;  very 
good  to  best ;  seeds  separating  easily  from  the  pulp,  large. 


MUSCAT  OF  ALEXANDRIA 

This  is  possibly  the  leading  table-  and  raisin-grape  of  the 
Pacific  slope.  From  the  literature  or  from  a  visit  to  vineyards, 
one  cannot  make  out  whether  one  or  several  varieties  are  grown 
under  the  name.  Probably  there  are  several  strains  grown  under 
the  distinctive  name  "Muscat"  which  applies  to  these  sweet, 
light  yellow,  musky  grapes.  This  is  one  of  the  standard 
sorts  to  force  indoors  but  requires  too  long  a  season  for  out  of 
doors  in  the  East.  The  following  description  is  compiled : 

Vine  short,  straggling,  bushy,  sometimes  forming  a  bush  rather 
than  a  vine,  very  productive ;  wood  gray  with  dark  spots,  short- 
jointed.  Leaf  round,  five-lobed;  bright  green  above,  lighter  green 
below.  Bunches  long  and  loose,  shouldered ;  berry  oblong,  light 
yellow  and  transparent  when  fully  mature,  covered  with  white  bloom  ; 
flesh  firm,  crisp  ;  flavor  sweet  and  very  musky  ;  quality  good.  Season 
late,  the  laterals  producing  a  second  and  sometimes  even  a  third  crop. 

NIAGARA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Niagara  (Plate  XXVI)  is  the  leading  American  green  grape, 
holding  the  rank  among  grapes  of  this  color  that  Concord  main- 
tains among  black  varieties.  It  is,  however,  a  less  valuable 
grape  than  Concord,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  should  be 
ranked  much  higher  than  several  other  green  grapes.  In  vigor 
and'productiveness,  when  the  two  grapes  are  on  equal  footing  as 
to  adaptability,  Niagara  and  Concord  rank  the  same.  In  hardi- 
ness of  root  and  vine,  Niagara  falls  short  of  Concord ;  it  cannot 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  419 

be  relied  on  without  winter  protection  where  the  thermometer 
falls  below  zero.  Niagara  has  much  of  the  foxiness  of  the 
wild  Labrusca,  distasteful  to  many  palates.  Both  bunches 
and  berries  of  Niagara  are  larger  than  those  of  Concord  and 
are  better  formed,  making  a  handsomer  fruit  if  the  colors  are 
liked  equally  well.  The  fruit  shells  as  badly  as  that  of  Con- 
cord and  does  not  keep  longer.  Both  vine  and  fruit  of  Niagara 
are  more  susceptible  to  fungal  diseases  than  those  of  Concord, 
especially  to  black-rot,  which  proves  a  veritable  scourge  with 
this  variety  in  unfavorable  seasons.  Niagara  was  produced 
by  C.  L.  Hoag  and  B.  W.  Clark,  Lockport,  New  York,  from 
seed  of  Concord  fertilized  by  Cassady  planted  in  1868. 

Vine  vigorous,  lacking  in  hardiness,  very  productive.  Canes  long, 
thick,  reddish-brown  deepening  in  color  at  the  nodes  which  are  enlarged 
and  slightly  flattened ;  internodes  long,  thick ;  tendrils  continuous, 
long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  glossy,  dark 
green,  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  lobes  three  to 
five  with  terminus  acute;  petiolar  sinus  of  medium  depth  and  width; 
basal  sinus  shallow,  wide,  often  toothed  ;  lateral  sinus  wide,  frequently 
toothed ;  teeth  shallow,  variable  in  width.  Flowers  self -fertile,  open 
in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering, 
frequently  single-shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  thick  with  a  few, 
small,  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  pale  green,  long.  Berries  large, 
oval,  pale  yellowish-green  with  thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm  ;  skin  thin, 
tender,  adherent,  astringent;  flesh  light  green,  translucent,  juicy, 
fine-grained,  tender,  foxy;  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  six,  deeply 
notched,  brown. 

NOAH 
(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Noah  is  little  grown  at  present  outside  of  Missouri,  where 
it  is  still  planted  somewhat.  Noah  and  Elvira  are  often  con- 
fused but  there  are  very  marked  differences.  The  clusters  of 
Elvira  are  smaller,  the  berries  are  more  foxy  in  taste,  and  the 
skins  are  more  tender  and  crack  more  readily  than  do  those  of 
Noah.  The  large,  dark,  glossy  green  leaves  make  the  vines  of 


420        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

this  variety  very  handsome.  As  with  Elvira  and  other  varieties 
of  this  group,  Noah  is  of  little  value  in  the  North.  It  origi- 
nated with  Otto  Wasserzieher,  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  from  seed  of 
Taylor  planted  in  1869. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  thick, 
dark  brown,  surface  roughened ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils 
continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  dark  green, 
glossy,  smooth;  lower  surface  pale  green,  thinly  pubescent;  leaf 
usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acuminate  ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  wide ; 
basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  very  shallow  when  present ;  teeth 
shallow,  wide.  Flowers  semi-fertile,  open  early ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  does  not  ship  nor  keep  well.  Clusters  variable 
in  size,  cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  short  with  a 
few  small  warts;  brush  short,  brown.  Berries  small,  round,  light 
green  tinged  with  yellow,  dull  with  thin  bloom,  firm ;  skin  adherent  to 
pulp;  flesh  yellowish-green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  fine-grained, 
vinous,  sprightly ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  dark  brown. 


NORTHERN  MUSCADINE 

(Labrusca) 

That  this  variety,  together  with  Lucile,  Lutie  and  other 
grapes  with  the  foxy  taste  strongly  marked,  has  not  become 
popular,  in  spite  of  good  vine  characters,  is  evidence  that  the 
American  public  do  not  desire  such  grapes.  In  appearance  of 
fruit,  Northern  Muscadine  is  much  like  Lutie,  the  two  being 
distinguished  from  other  grapes  by  an  unmistakable  odor.  A 
serious  defect  of  the  fruit  is  that  the  berries  shatter  badly  as 
soon  as  they  reach  maturity.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  vine 
characters  of  this  variety  are  very  good  and  offer  possibilities 
for  the  grape-breeder.  The  variety  originated  at  New  Lebanon, 
New  York,  and  was  brought  to  notice  by  D.  J.  Hawkins  arid 
Philemon  Stewart  of  the  Society  of  Shakers  about  1852. 

Vine  vigorous,  productive,  healthy,  hardy.  Caries  slender,  dark 
brown,  heavily  pubescent ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid,  dehisce  early. 
Leaves  large,  round,  thick ;  upper  surface  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface 


VARIETIES   OF    GRAPES  421 

dark  bronze,  heavily  pubescent.     Flowers  self-fertile,  open  in  mid- 
season  ;   stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early  mid-season,  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  medium  in 
size,  short,  occasionally  single-shouldered,  compact.  Berries  large, 
oval,  dark  amber  with  thin  bloom,  drop  badly  from  the  pedicel ;  skin 
tough,  adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  fine-grained, 
tender,  soft,  very  foxy,  sweet ;  poor  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  numerous, 
large,  broad,  faintly  notched,  long,  brown. 


NORTON 

(TEstivalis,  Labrusca) 

Norton  is  one  of  the  leading  wine-grapes  in  eastern  America, 
the  fruit  having  small  value  for  am^  other  purpose  than  wine 
or,  possibly,  grape-juice.  The  vine  is  hardy  but  requires  a 
long,  warm  season  to  reach  maturity  so  that  it  is  seldom  grown 
successfully  north  of  the  Potomac.  Norton  thrives  in  rich 
alluvial  clays,  gravels  or  sands,  the  only  requisite  seemingly 
being  a  fair  amount  of  fertility  and  soil  warmth.  'The  vines 
are  robust ;  very  productive,  especially  on  fertile  soils ;  as  free, 
or  more  so,  from  fungal  diseases  as  any  other  of  our  native 
grapes ;  and  are  very  resistant  to  phylloxera.  The  bunches  are 
of  but  medium  size  and  the  berries  are  small.  The  grapes  are 
pleasant  eating  when  fully  ripe,  rich,  spicy  and  pure-flavored 
but  tart  if  not  quite  ripe.  The  variety  is  difficult  to  propagate 
from  cuttings  and  to  transplant,  and  the  vines  do  not  bear 
grafts  well.  The  origin  of  Norton  is  uncertain,  but  it  has  been 
under  cultivation  since  before  1830,  when  it  was  first  described. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  healthy,  half-hardy,  productive.  Canes  long, 
thick,  dark  brown  with  abundant  bloom  ;  nodes  much  enlarged ;  inter- 
nodes  long;  tendrils  intermittent,  occasioimlly  continuous,  long, 
bifid,  sometimes  trifid.  Leaves  large,  irregularly  round ;  upper  surface 
pale  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;  leaf 
usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow, 
sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  usually  absent ;  lateral 
sinus  shallow  or  a  mere  notch  when  present.  Flowers  self-fertile, 
late ;  stamens  upright. 


422         MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  short,  broad, 
tapering,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender  with  a  few  warts  ; 
brush  dull,  wine-colored.  Berries  small,  round-oblate,  black,  glossy 
with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thin,  free  with  much  dark  red 
pigment;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  spicy,  tart.  Seeds 
free,  two  to  six,  small,  brown. 

OPORTO 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Oporto  was  at  one  time  in  demand  as  a  wine  grape  because 
its  wine  resembled  in  color  and  flavor  that  from  Oporto.  The 
variety  is  now  scarcely  known,  being  inferior  in  most  of  its  hor- 
ticultural characters  to  others  of  its  species,  but  might  be  valu- 
able in  breeding  for  some  of  its  characters.  The  vine  is  very 
hardy,  unusually  free  from  fungal  diseases,  is  very  resistant  to 
phylloxera  and  has  been  used  in  France  as  a  phylloxera-resist- 
ant grafting-stock.  The  juice  is  very  thick  and  dark,  a  deep 
purple,  hence  suitable  for  adding  color  to  wine  or  grape-juice. 
The  origin  of  Oporto  is  unknown.  It  was  brought  into  culti- 
vation about  1860  by  E.  W.  Sylvester,  Lyons,  New  York. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  variable  in  productiveness. 
Canes  long,  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes 
long,  diaphragm  thin ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid.  Stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  mid-season,  ships  and  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  cylindrical, 
often  single-shouldered.  Berries  medium  in  size,  round,  black,  glossy 
with  abundant  bloom,  persistent,  firm;  skin  very  thin,  tender,  with 
much  dark  wine-colored  pigment ;  flesh  white,  sometimes  with  purple 
tinge,  juicy,  fine-grained,  solid,  sweet,  spicy ;  fair  quality.  Seeds 
free,  numerous,  small,  broad,  faintly  notched,  sharply  pointed,  plump, 
dark  brown. 

OTHELLO 
• 

(Vinifera,  Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Arnold's  Hybrid,  Canadian  Hamburg,  Canadian  Hybrid 

In  France,  Othello  does  remarkably  well  as  a  direct  producer 
and  is  used  also  for  a  resistant  stock.  While  most  of  its 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  423 

characters  are  spoken  of  in  the  superlative  by  the  French,  in 
America  the  variety  is  not  so  highly  esteemed  because  of  sus- 
ceptibility to  fungi.  Moreover,  the  fruit  matures  so  late  that 
it  could  never  become  a  valuable  variety  for  the  North.  It  is 
in  no  sense  a  table-grape  but  makes  a  well -colored,  pleasant 
wine.  Charles  Arnold,  Paris,  Ontario,  grew  Othello  from  seed 
of  Clinton  fertilized  by  Black  Hamburg  and  planted  in  1859. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  brown;  nodes 
enlarged,  flattened  ;  tendrils  continuous,  sometimes  intermittent,  bifid 
or  trifid.  Leaves  of  average  size ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull 
and  smooth ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent ;.  lobes  three  to  five 
with  terminal  lobe  acute;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  very  narrow,  frequently 
closed  and  overlapping;  basal  sinus  shallow,  narrow;  lateral  sinus 
deep  ;  teeth  deep,  wide ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  fairly  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering, 
frequently  with  a  loose  single  shoulder,  compact ;  pedicel  long,  slender 
with  numerous  small  warts ;  brush  short,  wine-colored.  Berries 
large,  oval,  black,  glossy  with  abundant  bloom,  very  persistent ;  skin 
thin,  tough,  afdherent  with  red  pigment ;  flesh  dark  green,  very  juicy, 
fine-grained,  tough,  sprightly  ;  low  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three, 
neck  sometimes  swollen,  brown. 


OZARK 

(^Estivalis,  Labrusca) 

Ozark  belongs  to  the  South  and  to  Missouri  in  particular. 
Its  merits  and  demerits  have  been  threshed  out  by  the  Mis- 
souri grape-growers  with  the  result  that  its  culture  is  some- 
what increasing.  It  is  a  grape  of  low  quality,  partly,  perhaps, 
from  overbearing,  which  it  habitually  does  unless  the  fruit  is 
thinned.  The  vine  is  healthy  and  a  very  strong  grower,  but 
is  self -sterile,  which  is  against  it  as  a  market  sort.  In  spite  of 
self-sterility  and  low  quality,  Ozark  is  a  promising  variety  for 
the  country  south  of  Pennsylvania.  Ozark  originated  with 
J.  Stayman,  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  from  seed  of  unknown 
source.  The  variety  was  introduced  about  1890. 


424        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  thick  with 
thin  bloom,  surface  roughened  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes 
long;  tendrils  intermittent,  usually  bifid.  Leaves  dense,  large; 
upper  surface  light  green ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  thinly  pubescent, 
cobwebby ;  lobes  three  to  five ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow ;  serra- 
tions shallow,  narrow.  Flowers  self-sterile  or  nearly  so,  open  late ; 
stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  usually  with  a  long, 
loose  shoulder,  very  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick,  smooth ;  brush 
long,  red.  Berries  variable  in  size,  dull  black  with  abundant  bloom, 
persistent ;  skin  tough  with  much  wine-colored  pigment ;  flesh  tender, 
mild  ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  free,  small. 

PALOMINO 

(Vinifera) 
Golden  Chasselas.     Listan 

This  variety  seems  to  be  grown  in  California  under  the  three 
names  given  —  while  in  France  Palomino  is  described  as  a 
bluish-black  grape.  Palomino  seems  to  be  grown  commonly 
in  California  as  a  table-grape  and  is  worth  trying  in  eastern 
America.  The  variety  received  under  the  name  Palomino 
from  California  at  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  has  the 
following  characters,  agreeing  closely  with  those  set  down  by 
Calif ornian  viticulturists : 

Fruit  ripens  about  the  20th  of  October,  keeping  qualities  good ; 
clusters  medium  to  large,  long,  single-shouldered,  tapering,  loose; 
berries  medium  to  small,  roundish,  pale  greenish-yellow,  thin  bloom; 
skin  and  the  adhering  flesh  medium  tender  and  crisp,  flesh  surrounding 
seeds  melting ;  flavor  sweet,  vinous ;  quality  good. 

PEABODY 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Peabody  is  as  yet  a  comparatively  unimportant  offspring  of 
Clinton.  The  grapes  are  of  excellent  quality.  It  appears  to 
do  better  in  the  northern  tier  of  states  or  in  Canada,  than 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  425 

farther  south.      This  variety  was  grown  by  J.  H.   Ricketts 
about  1870. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous,  thick, 
light  brown  with  ash-gray  tinge,  darker  at  nodes,  covered  with  thin 
bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  inter- 
mittent, bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size;  upper  surface  dark 
green,  thin ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  nearly  glabrous ;  lobes  three, 
acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  serration  deep,  narrow. 
Flowers  semi-fertile,  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  long,  usually  with  a  shoulder 
connected  to  the  bunch  by  a  long  stem,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender, 
warty ;  brush  short,  green.  Berries  oval,  black,  glossy,  covered  with 
thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thick,  tough ;  flesh  very  juicy,  tender, 
vinous,  spicy,  agreeably  sweet  at  the  skin,  tart  at  the  center ;  good. 
Seeds  free,  broad. 

PERFECTION 
(Labrusca,  Bourquiniana,  Vinifera) 

Perfection  is  a  seedling  of  Delaware,  which  it  greatly  re- 
sembles but  does  not  equal  in  fruit ;  its  fruits  being  hardly  as 
high  in  quality,  do  not  keep  as  well,  shrivel  more  before  ripen- 
ing, and  shell  more  readily.  In  its  vine  characters,  it  is  much 
more  like  a  Labrusca  than  Delaware,  suggesting  that  it  is  a 
Delaware  cross.  In  the  Southwest,  Perfection  is  considered  a 
valuable  early  red  grape.  J.  Stayman,  Leavenworth,  Kansas, 
grew  Perfection  from  seed  of  Delaware ;  it  was  sent  out  for 
testing  about  1890. 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  injured  in  severe  winters,  productive. 
Canes  of  medium  length  and  number,  slender ;  nodes  enlarged,  flat- 
tened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves 
healthy,  medium  in  size ;  tipper  surface  light  green ;  lower  surface 
grayish-white  with  a  tinge  of  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  wanting 
or  three  to  five ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  serration  shallow. 
Flowers  self -fertile  or  nearly  so,  open  in  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  usually  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel 
short,  slender,  smooth  ;  brush  short,  yellow.  Berries  small,  round,  red 
but  less  brilliant  than  Delaware  with  faint  bloom,  inclined  to  drop 
from  pedicel,  soft ;  skin  thin,  free  from  astringency  ;  flesh  medium  in 


426        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

juiciness  and  tenderness,  vinous,  mild,  sweet ;  good  in  quality.     Seeds 
adherent,  numerous,  small,  often  with  an  enlarged  neck. 

PERKINS 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

At  one  time  Perkins  was  grown  largely  as  an  early  grape  but 
has  been  discarded  very  generally  on  account  of  the  poor  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit.  The  pulp  of  the  grape  is  hard  and  the  flavor 
is  that  of  Wyoming  and  Northern  Muscadine,  grapes  char- 
acterized by  disagreeable  foxiness.  As  with  nearly  all  Labrus- 
cas,  Perkins  is  a  poor  keeper.  Notwithstanding  the  faults  of 
its  fruit,  the  variety  vmay  have  value  in  regions  where  grape- 
growing  is  precarious ;  for  in  fruiting  it  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
liable grapes  cultivated,  the  vines  being  hardy,  vigorous,  pro- 
ductive and  free  from  fungal  diseases.  Perkins  is  an  accidental 
seedling  found  about  1830  in  the  garden  of  Jacob  Perkins, 
Bridgewater,  Massachusetts. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  long,  numerous, 
thick,  dark  brown,  deepening  in  color  at  the  nodes,  surface  heavily 
pubescent ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  internodes  long  ;  tendrils  con- 
tinuous, bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size,  thick ;  upper  surface 
rugose ;  lower  surface  heavily  pubescent ;  veins  distinct ;  lobes  three ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow;  serration  shallow.  Flowers  self -fertile, 
early ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  ships  well.  Clusters  of  medium  size  and  length,  broad, 
cylindrical,  often  with  a  single  shoulder,  compact ;  pedicel  short, 
thick,  warty ;  brush  long,  yellow.  Berries  large,  oval,  pale  lilac  or 
light  red  with  thin  bloom,  inclined  to  drop  from  the  pedicel,  soft ; 
skin  thin,  tough,  without  pigment;  flesh  white,  juicy,  stringy,  fine- 
grained, firm,  meaty,  very  foxy ;  poor  in  quality.  Seeds  adherent, 
numerous,  medium  in  size,  notched. 

POCKLINGTON 

(Labrusca) 

Before  the  advent  of  Niagara,  Pocklington  (Plate  XXII)  was 
the  leading  green  grape.  The  variety  has  the  fatal  fault,  how- 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  427 

ever,  of  ripening  its  crop  late,  which  with  some  minor  defects 
has  caused  it  to  fall  below  Niagara  for  northern  grape  districts. 
Pocklington  is  a  seedling  of  Concord  and  resembles  its  parent 
in  vine  characters ;  the  vines  are  fully  equal  to  or  surpass  those 
of  Concord  in  hardiness,  but  are  of  slower  growth  and  not 
quite  as  healthy,  vigorous  nor  productive.  In  quality,  the 
grapes  are  as  good  if  not  better  than  those  of  Concord  or  Ni- 
agara, being  sweet,  rich  and  pleasantly  flavored,  although  as 
with  the  other  grapes  named,  it  has  too  much  foxiness  for  criti- 
cal consumers.  Pocklington  is  not  equal  to  several  other  grapes 
of  its  season  in  quality,  as  lona,  Jefferson,  Diana,  Dutchess 
and  Catawba,  but  it  is  far  above  the  average  and  for  this  reason 
should  be  retained.  John  Pocklington,  Sandy  Hill,  New  York, 
grew  Pocklington  from  seed  of  Concord  about  1870. 

Vine  medium  in  vigor,  hardy.  Canes  of  medium  length,  number  and 
size,  dark  reddish-brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils  contin- 
uous, bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  variable  in  size,  thick ;  upper  surface 
light  green,  glossy  ;  lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  pubescent ;  lobes 
one  to  three  with  terminus  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  wide ; 
teeth  narrow.  Flowers  self -fertile,  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  cylin- 
drical, often  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick  with 
a  few  small  warts  ;  brush  short,  green.  Berries  large,  oblate,  yellowish- 
green  with  tinge  of  amber,  with  thin  bloom,  firm  ;  skin  with  scattering 
russet  dots,  thin,  tender,  adherent,  faintly  astringent ;  flesh  light 
green  with  yellow  tinge,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  fine-grained,  slightly 
foxy  ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  six,  of  medium  length  and  breadth. 

POUGHKEEPSIE 
(Bourquiniana,  Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Poughkeepsie  has  been  known  long  on  the  Hudson  River, 
yet  it  is  now  little  grown  there  and  has  riot  been  disseminated 
widely  elsewhere.  In  quality  of  fruit,  it  is  equal  to  the  best 
American  varieties,  but  the  vine  characters  are  all  poor  and 
the  variety  is  thus  effectually  debarred  from  common  cultiva- 
tion. Both  vine  and  fruit  resemble  those  of  Delaware,  but  in 


428        MANUAL   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

neither  does  it  quite  equal  the  latter.  In  particular,  the  vine 
is  more  easily  winter-killed  and  is  less  productive  than  that  of 
Delaware.  The  grapes  ripen  a  little  earlier  than  those  of  the 
last  named  sort  and  this,  with  their  beauty  and  fine  quality, 
is  sufficient  to  recommend  it  for  the  garden  at  least.  About 
1865,  A.  J.  Caywood,  Marlboro,  New  York,  grew  Pough- 
keepsie  from  seed  of  lona  fertilized  by  mixed  pollen  of  Delaware 
and  Walter. 

Vine  of  medium  vigor.  Canes  short,  thick,  dark  reddish-brown ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  frequently  three  in  line,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves 
small ;  upper  surface  green,  glossy,  older  leaves  rugose ;  lower  surface 
grayish-green,  pubescent.  Flowers  self -fertile,  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  small,  tapering,  usually 
single-shouldered,  very  compact.  Berries  small,  round,  pale  red  with 
thin  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  tender,  without  pigment ; 
flesh  pale  green,  very  juicy,  tender,  melting,  fine-grained,  vinous,  sweet ; 
very  good  to  best.  Seeds  free,  small,  broad,  with  enlarged  neck,  brown. 


PRENTISS 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Prentiss  is  a  green  grape  of  high  quality,  once  well  known 
and  generally  recommended,  but  now  going  out  of  cultivation 
because  the  vine  is  tender  to  cold,  lacks  in  vigor,  is  unpro- 
ductive, uncertain  in  bearing  and  is  subject  to  rot  and  mildew. 
There  are  vineyards  in  which  it  does  very  well  and  in  such  it 
is  a  remarkably  attractive  green  grape,  especially  in  form  of 
cluster  and  in  color  of  berry,  in  these  respects  resembling  the 
one-time  favorite,  Rebecca,  although  not  so  high  in  quality 
as  that  variety.  Its  season  is  given  as  both  before  and  after 
Concord.  Prentiss  always  must  remain  a  variety  for  the 
amateur  and  for  special  localities.  It  originated  with  J.  W. 
Prentiss,  Pulteney,  New  York,  about  1870  from  seed.of  Isabella. 

Vine  weak.  Canes  thick,  light  to  dark  brown ;  tendrils  continuous, 
bifid.  Leaves  small,  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  rugose  in  the 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  429 

older  leaves  ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  pubescent.     Flowers  self-fertile, 
mid-season ;   stamens  upright. 

Fruit  variable  in  season,  about  with  Concord,  keeps  well.  Cluster 
medium  in  size,  tapering,  sometimes  with  a  single  shoulder,  compact. 
Berries  medium  in  size,  oval,  light  green  with  a  yellow  tinge,  thin 
bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough,  without  pigment ;  flesh  pale 
green,  juicy,  foxy ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  numerous,  notched,  short, 
sharp-pointed,  dark  brown. 

PURPLE  CORNICHON 

(Vinifera) 
Black  Cornichon 

By  virtue  of  attractive  appearance  and  excellent  shipping 
qualities  of  the  fruit,  this  variety  takes  high  place  among  the 
commercial  grapes  of  California.  Late  ripening  is  another 
quality  making  it  desirable,  while  its  curious,  long,  curved 
berries  add  novelty  to  its  attractions.  The  fruit  does  not  take 
high  rank  in  quality.  The  description  has  been  compiled. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive ;  wood  light  brown 
striped  with  darker  brown,  short-jointed.  Leaves  large,  longer  than 
wide,  deeply  five-lobed ;  dark  green  above,  lighter  and  very  hairy 
below ;  coarsely  toothed ;  with  short,  thick  petiole.  Bunches  very 
large,  loose  or  sometimes  scraggly,  borne  on  long  peduncles ;  berries 
large,  long,  more  or  less  curved,  dark  purple,  spotted,  thick-skinned, 
borne  on  long  pedicels ;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  sweet  but  not  rich  in  flavor ; 
quality  good  but  not  high.  Season  late,  keeps  and  ships  well. 

REBECCA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

In  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  grape-growing  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  connoisseurs,  Rebecca  wks  one  of  the  sterling 
green  varieties.  It  is  wholly  unsuited  for  commercial  vine- 
yards and  for  years  has  been  disappearing  gradually  from 
cultivation.  The  fruit  is  exceptionally  fine,  consisting  of  well- 
formed  bunches  and  berries,  the  latter  handsome  yellowish- 


430        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

white  and  semi-transparent.  In  quality,  the  grapes  are  of  the 
best,  with  a  rich,  sweet  flavor  and  pleasing  aroma.  But  the 
vine  characters  condemn  Rebecca  for  any  but  the  amateur. 
The  vines  lack  in  hardiness  and  vigor,  are  susceptible  to  mildew 
and  other  fungi  and  are  productive  only  under  the  best  con- 
ditions. The  original  vine  was  an  accidental  seedling  found 
in  the  garden  of  E.  M.  Peake,  Hudson,  New  York,  and  bore  its 
first  fruit  in  1852. 

Vine  weak,  sometimes  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy.  Canes  long, 
numerous,  slender,  dull  brown,  deepening  in  color  at  the  nodes  ;  tendrils 
continuous  or  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  variable  in  size ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  dull,  rugose;  lower  surface  grayish-green, 
pubescent.  Flowers  self -fertile  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season,  ships  and  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  short, 
cylindrical,  rarely  with  a  small,  single  shoulder,  compact.  Berries 
of  medium  size,  oval,  green  with  yellow  tinge  verging  on  amber,  thin 
gray  bloom,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  without  pigment ;  flesh  pale 
green,  very  juicy,  tender,  melting,  vinous,  a  little  foxy,  sweet;  good 
to  very  good.  Seeds  free,  short,  narrow,  blunt,  brown. 

RED  EAGLE 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Red  Eagle  is  a  pure-bred  seedling  of  Black  Eagle  which  it 
resembles  in  all  characters  except  color  of  fruit.  Vine  and 
fruit  exhibit  the  characters  found  in  Rogers'  hybrids.  It  takes 
high  rank  as  a  grape  of  quality  and  can  be  recommended  for 
the  garden.  The  variety  originated  with  T.  V.  Munson,  Deni- 
son,  Texas,  and  was  sent  out  in  1888. 

Vine  medium  in  vigor  and  hardiness,  productive.  Canes  few,  slen- 
der, dark  brown  with  heavy  bloom;  nodes  prominent,  flattened; 
tendrils  continuous  or  intermittent,  long,  bifid.  Leaves  thick ;  upper 
surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  pubes- 
cent ;  lobes  three  to  five  with  terminus  obtuse ;  petiolar  sinus  deep, 
narrow,  sometimes  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  wide ;  lateral 
sinus  deep,  wide;  teeth  deep,  wide.  Flowers  semi-fertile,  late; 
stamens  upright. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  431 

Fruit  early  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  broad,  taper- 
ing, single-shouldered,  sometimes  double-shouldered,  loose  with  many 
abortive  berries ;  pedicel  very  long,  slender ;  brush  green  with  brown 
tinge.  Berries  variable  in  size,  round,  light  to  very  dark  red  with 
heavy  bloom,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  thick,  tender,  adherent  with  some 
red  pigment ;  flesh  green,  transparent,  juicy,  very  tender,  melting, 
slightly  foxy,  tart ;  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  large,  long, 
blunt,  light  brown. 

REGAL 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

Regal  is  an  offspring  of  Lindley,  which  it  greatly  resembles. 
The  fruit  is  attractive  in  appearance  and  high  in  quality.  A 
seemingly  insignificant  fault  might  make  Regal  undesirable  in 
a  commercial  vineyard ;  the  clusters  are  borne  so  close  to  the 
wood  that  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  the  fruit  and  avoid  injury  to 
the  berries  next  to  the  wood.  The  variety  is  worthy  of  ex- 
tensive culture  in  vineyards  and  gardens.  Regal  originated 
with  W.  A.  Woodward,  Rockford,  Illinois,  in  1879. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  very  productive.  Canes  interme- 
diate in  length  and  size,  numerous,  dark  reddish-brown.  Tendrils 
intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  green, 
glossy  and  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green  with  a  bronze  tinge, 
strongly  pubescent.  Flowers  self -fertile,  mid-season  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  keeps  well.  Clusters  small,  broad,  cylindrical, 
usually  with  a  short  single  shoulder,  sometimes  double-shouldered,  very 
compact.  Berries  large,  round,  purplish-red  with  faint  bloom,  per- 
sistent. Skin  thin,  tough,  without  pigment.  Flesh  pale  green,  very 
juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  musky  ;  good.  Seeds  free,  numerous,  long, 
narrow,  notched,  blunt  with  a  short  neck,  brown. 


REQUA 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

This  is  one  of  Rogers'  hybrids  which  equals  other  grapes  of 
its  color  and  season.  The  grapes  are  attractive  in  cluster  and 
berry  and  are  of  very  good  quality  but  are  subject  to  rot  and 


432        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

ripen  too  late  for  northern  regions.     The  variety  was  named 
Requa  in  1869,  it  having  been  previously  known  as  No.  28. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy  except  in  severe  winters,  medium  in  produc- 
tiveness. Canes  long,  thick ;  tendrils  continuous  or  intermittent, 
trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  medium  in  size,  dark  green,  often  thick  and 
rugose  ;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  pubescent.  Flowers  semi-fertile, 
late ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  long.  Clusters  large,  cylindrical,  often  with 
a  long,  single  shoulder,  compact.  Berries  large,  oval,  dark,  dull  red 
covered  with  thin  bloom,  strongly  adherent ;  skin  thin,  tough,  ad- 
herent ;  flesh  pale  green,  tender,  stringy,  vinous,  foxy,  sweet ;  good 
to  very  good.  Seeds  adherent,  medium  in  size  and  length,  broad,  blunt. 


ROCHESTER 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  fruit  of  Rochester  is  a  large-clustered  red  grape,  handsome 
and  very  good  in  quality.  The  vine  is  a  strong  grower,  pro- 
ductive and  free  from  diseases.  The  variety  is  difficult  to 
propagate  and,  therefore,  not  in  favor  with  nurserymen.  The 
grapes  are  sweet,  rich  and  vinous  but  should  be  used  as  soon  as 
ripe,  as  they  do  not  keep  well  and  the  berries  quickly  shatter 
from  the  bunch.  As  an  attractive  early  red  grape,  Rochester 
is  worth  a  place  in  the  garden  and  in  favored  locations  for  a 
special  market.  Ellwanger  and  Barry,  Rochester,  New  York, 
in  1867  grew  Rochester  from  mixed  seed  of  Delaware,  Diana, 
Concord  and  Rebecca. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Canes  long,  dark  reddish-brown ; 
nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy, 
smooth;  lower  surface  grayish-green,  pubescent;  lobes  one  to  three 
with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep  ;  basal  sinus  absent ;  lateral 
sinus  shallow ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers  fertile,  mid-season ;  stamens 
upright. 

Fruit  does  not  keep  well.  Clusters  large,  broad,  tapering,  usually 
single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender  with  few  warts ; 
brush  slender,  yellowish-brown.  Berries  medium,  oval,  purplish-red, 


PLATE  XXXII.  —  Wyoming  (Xf). 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  433 

dull  with  thin,  lilac  bloom,  drop  from  the  pedicel,  soft ;  skin  thick, 
tough,  inclined  to  crack,  free,  without  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  pale 
green,  transparent,  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  vinous,  sweet ;  good 
to  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  three,  large,  short,  broad,  dark  brown. 

ROMMEL 

(Labrusca,  Vulpina,  Vinifera) 

Rommel  is  rarely  cultivated  in  the  North,  because  the  vines 
lack  in  robustness,  hardiness  and  productiveness  and  are  sus- 
ceptible to  the  leaf -hopper ;  and  the  grapes  do  riot  attain  high 
quality  and  crack  as  they  ripen.  The  bunch  and  berry  are 
attractive  in  form,  size  and  color.  At  its  best,  Rommel  is  a 
good  table-grape  and  makes  a  fine  white  wine.  It  is  worth 
growing  in  the  South.  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Texas,  origi- 
nated Rommel  in  1885,  from  seed  of  Elvira  pollinated  by  Tri- 
umph, and  introduced  it  in  1889. 

Vine  vigorous  in  the  South.  Canes  long,  numerous,  thick,  reddish- 
brown,  surface  roughened  ;  nodes  enlarged,  often  flattened  ;  internodes 
short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  medium  in 
size,  round,  thick ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  sur- 
face pale  green,  free  from  pubescence  but  slightly  hairy;  leaf  not 
lobed,  terminus  acute  to  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow,  often 
closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow  when 
present ;  teeth  deep.  Flowers  semi-fertile,  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  mid-season,  ships  and  keeps  well.  Clusters  medium  to  short, 
broad,  cylindrical,  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender,  smooth  ; 
brush  short,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  roundish,  light  green  with  a 
yellow  tinge,  glossy,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  thin,  cracks  badly,  tender, 
adherent,  without  pigment  or  astringency ;  flesh  greenish,  translucent, 
juicy,  tender,  melting,  stringy,  sweet ;  fair  to  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to 
four,  broad,  sharp-pointed,  plump,  brown. 

ROSAKI 

• 
(Vinifera) 

Rosaki  is  a  table-  and  raisin-grape  of  southeastern  Europe  and 
Asia  Minor.  According  to  some  of  the  California  nursery 

2F 


434        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

companies,  it  is  grown  in  that  state  under  the  name  Dattier  de 
Beyrouth,  although  it  would  seem  from  French  descriptions 
that  there  is  a  separate,  very  late  variety  of  the  latter  name. 
Rosaki  is  similar  to  Malaga  and  there  is  a  possibility  that  in 
some  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  East,  it  may  be  grown  commer- 
cially as  a  substitute  for  the  latter.  The  variety  seems  to  be 
little  grown  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

Vines  vigorous,  usually  very  productive.  Leaves  large,  roundish, 
rugose,  usually  five-lobed ;  terminal  lobe  acuminate ;  petiolar  sinus 
moderately  deep  to  deep,  medium  broad ;  lower  lateral  sinus  shallow, 
broad,  occasionally  lacking ;  upper  lateral  sinus  shallow  to  medium, 
broad ;  margins  broadly  and  bluntly  dentate.  Fruit  ripens  the  third 
week  in  October,  keeping  qualities  excellent ;  clusters  large,  loose, 
tapering,  shouldered ;  berries  large  to  very  large,  oval  to  long-oval, 
pale  yellow-green ;  flesh  translucent,  tender,  meaty,  vinous,  sprightly ; 
quality  good  to  very  good. 


ROSE  OF  PERU 

(Vinifera) 

Rose  of  Peru  is  a  favorite  table-grape  in  California,  confused 
with  and  possibly  the  same  as  Black  Prince.  Its  chief  com- 
mendable characters  are  handsome  appearance  and  high  quality 
of  fruit  and  very  productive  vines.  It  is  not  adapted  for 
shipping  and  does  not  enter  plentifully  into  commerce.  Its 
season  is  so  late  that  the  variety  is  hardly  worth  trying 
in  the  East,  and  yet  it  has  matured  in  favorable  seasons 
at  Geneva,  New  York,  The  following  description  is  com- 
piled : 

Vine  vigorous,  healthy,  productive ;  wood  short-jointed,  dark 
brown.  Leaves  of  medium 'size;  deep  green  above,  lighter  green 
and  tomentose  below.  Bunches  very  large,  shouldered,  very  loose, 
often  scraggly ;  berry  large,  round,  black  with  firm,  crackling  flesh ; 
skin  rather  thin  and  tender ;  flavor  sweet  and  rich  ;  quality  very  good 
to  best.  Season  late,  keeping  rather  well  but  not  shipping  well. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  435 

SALEM 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 
Rogers'  No.  22,  Rogers   No.  53 

Salem  (Plate  XXVII)  is  the  one  of  Rogers'  hybrids  of  which 
the  originator  is  said  to  have  thought  most,  and  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  his  place  of  residence.  The^two  chief  faults, 
unproductiveness  and  susceptibility  to  mildew,  are  not  found 
in  all  localities,  and  in  these  districts,  near  good  markets,  Salem 
ought  to  rank  high  as  a  commercial  fruit.  The  vine  is  hardy, 
vigorous  and  productive  and  bears  handsome  fruit  of  high 
quality.  This  variety  was  christened  Salem  by  Rogers  in 
1867,  two  years  earlier  than  his  other  hybrids  were  named. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  variable  in  productiveness.  Canes  long, 
dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged  ;  tendrils  continuous  or  intermittent,  long, 
bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  variable  in  size ;  upper  surface  dark  green, 
dull ;  lower  surface  pale  green  with  slight  bronze  tinge,  pubescent ; 
lobes  one  to  three  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  narrow, 
often  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow, 
notched.  Flowers  sterile,  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large,  short,  broad, 
tapering,  heavily  shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick  with  small 
warts,  enlarged  at  point  of  attachment  to  berry ;  brush  short,  pale 
green.  Berries  large,  round,  dark  red,  dull,  persistent,  soft ;  skin 
thick,  adherent,  without  pigment,  astringent ;  flesh  translucent,  juicy, 
tender,  stringy,  fine-grained,  vinous,  sprightly ;  good  to  very  good. 
Seeds  one  to  six,  large,  long  and  broad,  blunt,  brown. 

SCUPPERNONG 

(Rotundifolia) 

American  Muscadine,  Bull,  Bullace,  Butlet,  Fox  Grape,  Green 
Scuppernong,  Green  Muscadine,  Hickman,  Muscadine,  Roanoke 

Scuppernong  is  preeminently  the  grape  of  the  South,  the 
chief  representative  of  the  great  species,  V.  rotundifolia,  which 


436        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

runs  riot  in  natural  luxuriance  from  Delaware  and  Maryland  to 
the  Gulf  and  westward  from  the  Atlantic  to  Arkansas  and  Texas. 
Scuppernong  vines  are  found  on  arbors,  in  gardens,  or  half  wild, 
on  trees  and  fences  on  nearly  every  farm  in  the  South  Atlantic 
states.  As  a  rule,  these  vines  receive  little  cultivation,  are 
unpruned  and  are  given  no  care  of  any  kind ;  but  even  under 
neglect  they  produce  large  crops.  The  vines  are  almost  immune 
to  mildew,  rot,  phylloxera,  or  other  fungal  or  insect  pests ;  they 
give  not  only  an  abundance  of  fruit  but  on  arbors  and  trellises 
are  much  prized  for  their  shade  and  beauty.  The  fruit,  to  a 
palate  accustomed  to  other  grapes,  is  not  very  acceptable, 
having  a  musky  flavor  and  a  somewhat  repugnant  odor,  which, 
however,  with  familiarity  becomes  quite  agreeable.  The  pulp 
is  sweet  and  juicy  but  is  lacking  in  sprightliness.  The  grapes 
are  not  suitable  for  the  market  since  the  berries  drop  from  the 
bunch  in  ripening  and  become  more  or  less  smeared  with  juice 
so  that  their  appearance  is  not  appetizing. 

Vine  vigorous,  not  hardy  in  the  North,  very  productive.  Canes 
long,  numerous,  slender,  ash-gray  to  grayish-brown ;  surface  smooth, 
thickly  covered  with  small,  light  brown  dots ;  tendrils  intermittent, 
simple.  Leaves  small,  thin ;  upper  surface  light  green,  smooth  ;  lower 
surface  very  pale  green,  pubescent  along  the  ribs ;  veins  inconspicuous. 
Flowers  very  late  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  late,  ripens  unevenly,  berries  drop  as  they  mature.  Clusters 
small,  round,  unshouldered,  loose.  Berries  few  in  a  cluster,  large, 
round,  dull  green,  often  with  brown  tinge,  firm ;  skin  thick,  tough 
with  many  small  russet  dots ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  tender,  soft, 
fine-grained,  foxy,  sweet  to  agreeably  tart;  fair  to  good.  Seeds  ad- 
herent, large,  short,  broad,  unnotched,  blunt,  plump,  surface  smooth, 
brown. 

SECRETARY 

(Vinifera,  Vulpina,  Labrusca) 

Injured  by  mildew  and  rot  which  attack  leaves,  fruit  and 
young  wood,  the  vines  of  Secretary  are  able  to  produce  good 
grapes  only  in  exceptional  seasons  and  in  favored  localities. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  437 

The  fruit  characters  of  Secretary,  however,  give  the  grapes 
exceptionally  high  quality,  the  berries  being  meaty  yet  juicy, 
fine-grained  and  tender,  with  a  sweet,  spicy,  vinous  flavor. 
The  bunches  are  large,  well-formed,  with  medium-sized,  pur- 
plish-black berries  covered  with  thick  bloom,  making  a  very 
handsome  cluster.  While  the  vine  and  foliage  somewhat 
resemble  those  of  Clinton,  one  of  its  parents,  the  variety  is  not 
nearly  as  hardy,  vigorous  nor  productive.  Moreover,  in  any 
but  favored  localities  in  the  North,  its  maturity  is  somewhat 
uncertain.  These  defects  keep  Secretary  from  becoming  of 
commercial  importance  and  make  it  of  value  only  to  the 
amateur.  Secretary  is  one  of  the  first  productions  of  J.  H. 
Ricketts,  Newburgh,  New  York,  the  original  vine  coming  from 
seed  of  Clinton  fertilized  by  Muscat  Hamburg,  planted  in  1867. 

Vine  vigorous,  doubtfully  hardy,  variable  in  productiveness. 
Canes  numerous,  light  brown,  conspicuously  darker  at  nodes,  surface 
covered  with  thin,  blue  bloom ;  tendrils  intermittent,  bifid.  Leaves 
small  to  medium,  thin  ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ;  lower 
surface  pale  green,  glabrous.  Flowers  semi-fertile,  early;  stamens 
upright. 

Fruit  ripens  after  Concord,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  large, 
long,  cylindrical  with  a  large,  single  shoulder,  often  loose  and  with  many 
abortive  fruits.  Berries  large,  round,  flattened  at  attachment  to 
pedicel,  dark  purplish-black,  glossy,  persistent,  firm ;  skin  tough  with 
wine-colored  pigment ;  flesh  green,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  vinous, 
sweet ;  good.  Seeds  free,  large,  broad,  notched,  long,  dark  brown. 

SENASQUA 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  vine  of  Senasqua  lacks  in  vigor,  hardiness,  productiveness 
and  health.  The  grapes  are  of  good  quality,  and  when  well 
grown  are  up  to  the  average  fruits  of  'the  Labrusca-Vinifera 
hybrids.  Unfortunately  the  berries  have  a  tendency  to  crack 
which  is  aggravated  by  the  bunches  being  so  compact  as  to 
crowd  the  berries.  Senasqua  is  one  of  the  latest  grapes  to  open 
its  buds  and  is,  therefore,  seldom  injured  by  late  frosts.  It 


438        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

can  be  recommended  only  for  the  garden  for  the  sake  of  variety. 
Stephen  W.  Underbill  of  Crown  Point,  New  York,  originated 
Senasqua  from  seed  of  Concord  pollinated  by  Black  Prince. 

Vine  weak  and  tender,  often  unproductive.  Canes  short,  few,  red- 
dish-brown; nodes  enlarged,  flattened;  tendrils  intermittent,  long, 
trifid  or  bifid.  Leaves  light  green,  glossy,  rugose;  lower  surface 
whitish-green,  pubescent ;  leaf  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  basal  and  lateral  sinuses  shallow  and  narrow 
when  present.  Flowers  fertile,  late  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  a  little  later  than  Concord,  keeps  well.  Clusters  large,  broad, 
irregularly  tapering,  usually  with  a  small,  single  shoulder,  very  com- 
pact ;  pedicel  thick,  smooth,  enlarged  at  point  of  attachment ;  brush 
short,  reddish.  Berries  large,  round,  reddish-black,  persistent,  firm; 
skin  thick,  tender,  cracks,  adherent,  contains  some  wine-colored  pig- 
ment ;  flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  meaty,  vinous,  spicy ; 
good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  long,  narrow,  one-sided,  light  brown. 

SULTANA 

(Vinifera) 

This  variety  was  formerly  the  standard  seedless  grape  in 
California  for  home  use  and  raisins,  but  it  is  now  outstripped  by 
Sultanina.  Sultana  is  possibly  better  flavored  than  Sultanina 
but  the  vines  are  hardly  as  vigorous  or  productive  and  the 
berries  often  have  seeds.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vines  vigorous,  upright,  productive.  Leaves  large,  five-lobed, 
with  large  sinuses,  light  in  color,  coarsely  toothed.  Bunches  large, 
long,  cylindrical,  heavily  shouldered,  sometimes  not  well  filled, 
often  loose  and  scraggly ;  berries  small,  round,  firm  and  crisp,  golden- 
yellow,  sweet  with  considerable  piquancy ;  quality  good. 

SULTANINA 

(Vinifera) 
Thompson's  Seedless 

Sultanina  is  one  of  the  standard  seedless  grapes  of  the  Pacific 
slope,  grown  both  to  eat  out  of  hand  and  for  raisins.  Probably 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  439 

it  can  be  grown  in  home  plantations  in  favored  parts  of  eastern 
America  where  the  season  is  long  and  warm.  The  following 
description  is  compiled  from  Calif ornian  viticulturists : 

Vine  very  vigorous,  very  productive ;  trunk  large  with  very  long 
canes.  Leaves  glabrous  on  both  sides,  dark  yellow-green  above, 
light  below;  generally  three-lobed,  with  shallow  sinuses;  teeth  short 
and  obtuse.  Bunch  large,  conico-cylindrical,  well  filled,  with  her- 
baceous peduncles ;  berries  oval,  beautiful  golden-yellow  color ; 
skin  moderately  thick ;  flesh  of  rather  neutral  flavor ;  very  good. 

TAYLOR 

(Vulpina,  Labrusca) 
Bullitt 

While  it  is  from  the  species  to  wrhich  Taylor  belongs  that  we 
must  look  for  our  hardiest  vines,  nevertheless  this  grape  and  its 
offspring,  although  not  tender  to  cold,  do  best  in  southern 
regions,  as  they  require  a  long  warm  summer  to  mature  prop- 
erly. The  quality  of  the  fruit  of  Taylor  is  fair  to  good,  the 
flavor  being  sweet,  pure,  delicate  and  spicy  and  the  flesh  tender 
and  juicy;  but  the  bunches  are  small  and  the  flowers  are  in- 
fertile so  that  the  berries  do  not  set  well,  making  very  imperfect 
and  unsightly  clusters.  The  skin  is  such,  also,  that  it  cracks 
badly,  a  defect  seemingly  transmitted  to  many  of  the  seedlings  of 
the  variety.  The  vine  is  strong,  healthy,  hardy  but  not  very 
productive.  The  original  vine  of  Taylor  was  a  wild  seedling 
found  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  on  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  near  the  Kentucky-Tennessee  line  by  a  Mr.  Cobb. 

Vine  vigorous  to  rank,  healthy,  hardy,  variable  in  productiveness. 
Leaves  small,  attractive  in  color,  smooth.  Flowers  bloom  early ; 
stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  ripens  about  two  weeks  before  Isabella.  Clusters  small 
to  medium,  shouldered,  loose  or  moderately  compact.  Berries  small 
to  medium,  roundish,  pale  greenish-white,  sometimes  tinged  with 
amber ;  skin  very  thin ;  pulp  sweet,  spicy  ;  fair  to  good  in  quality. 


440        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

TRIUMPH 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

When  quality,  color,  shape  and  size  of  bunch  and  berry  are 
considered,  Triumph  (Plate  XXVIII)  is  one  of  the  finest 
dessert  grapes  of  America.  At  its  best,  it  is  a  magnificent  bunch 
of  golden  grapes  of  highest  quality,  esteemed  even  in  southern 
Europe  where  it  must  compete  with  the  best  of  the  Viniferas. 
In  America,  however,  its  commercial  importance  is  curtailed  by 
the  fact  that  the  fruit  requires  a  long  season  for  proper  develop- 
ment. Triumph  has,  in  general,  the  vine  characters  of  the 
Labrusca  parent,  Concord,  especially  its  habit  of  growth,  vigor, 
productiveness  and  foliage  characters,  falling  short  in  hardiness, 
resistance  to  fungal  diseases  and  earliness  of  fruit,  the  fruit 
maturing  with  or  a  little  later  than  Catawba.  While  the  vine 
characters  of  Triumph  are  those  of  Labrusca,  there  is  scarcely  a 
suggestion  of  the  coarseness,  or  of  the  foxy  odor  and  taste  of 
Labrusca,  and  the  objectionable  seeds,  pulp  and  skin  of  the 
native  grape  give  way  to  the  far  less  objectionable  structures  of 
Vinifera.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  melting  and  the  flavor  rich, 
sweet,  vinous,  pure  and  delicate.  The  skins  of  the  berries  under 
unfavorable  conditions  crack  badly,  the  variety,  therefore, 
neither  shipping  nor  keeping  well.  Triumph  was  grown  soon 
after  the  Civil  War  by  George  W.  Campbell,  Delaware,  Ohio, 
from  seed  of  Concord  fertilized  by  Chassalas  Musque. 

Vine  vigorous.  Canes  long,  dark  brown  with  much  bloom  ;  nodes 
enlarged ;  tendrils  intermittent,  long,  trifid,  sometimes  bifid.  Leaves 
large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  grayish- 
white,  pubescent ;  leaf  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  obtuse ;  petiolar 
sinus  deep,  narrow,  often  closed  and  overlapping ;  basal  sinus  absent ; 
lateral  sinus  shallow  and  narrow  when  present ;  teeth  deep,  wide. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  late ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  very  late.  Clusters  very  large,  long,  broad,  cylindrical, 
sometimes  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender,  smooth ;  brush 
short,  yellowish-green.  Berries  medium  in  size,  oval,  golden  yellow, 
glossy  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm  ;  skin  thin,  inclined  to  crack, 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  441 

adherent,  without  pigment,  slightly  astringent ;  flesh  light  green, 
translucent,  juicy,  fine-grained,  tender,  vinous  ;  good  to  very  good. 
Seeds  free,  one  to  five,  small,  brown. 


ULSTER 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  vines  of  Ulster  set  too  much  fruit  in  spite  of  efforts  to 
control  the  crop  by  pruning;  two  undesirable  results  follow, 
the  bunches  are  small  and  the  vines,  lacking  vigor  at  best,  fail 
to  recover  from  the  overfruitfulness.  These  defects  keep  the 
variety  from  becoming  of  importance  commercially  or  even  a 
favorite  as  a  garden  grape.  The  quality  of  the  fruit  is  very 
good,  being  much  like  that  of  Catawba,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  it  is  an  attractive  green  with  a  red  tinge.  The 
fruit  keeps  well  when  the  variety  is  grown  under  conditions 
suited  to  it.  Ulster  originated  with  A.  J.  Caywood,  Marlboro, 
New  York,  and  was  introduced  by  him  about  1885.  Its 
parents  are  said  to  be  Catawba  pollinated  by  a  wild  ^Esti- 
valis.  Both  vine  and  fruit  show  traces  of  Labrusca  and 
Vinifera,  but  the  ^Estivalis  characters,  if  present,  are  not 
apparent. 

Vine  hardy,  productive,  overbears.  Canes  short,  slender,  dark 
brown,  surface  roughened  and  covered  with  faint  pubescence ;  nodes 
enlarged  and  flattened  ;  internodes  short ;  tendrils  intermittent,  bifid, 
dehisce  early.  Leaves  small,  thick;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  grayish-white,  pubescent ;  leaf  usually  not  lobed 
with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  medium  to  wide ;  basal  sinus 
absent ;  lateral  sinus  a  notch  when  present ;  teeth  shallow,  wide. 
Flowers  self -fertile,  early  ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late  mid-season.  Clusters  long,  -cylindrical,  often  single- 
shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender,  with  numerous  warts ;  brush 
short,  yellowish-green.  Berries  medium  in  size,  round,  dark  dull  red 
with  thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thick,  tough,  adherent,  astringent ; 
flesh  pale  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  faintly  aro- 
matic, slightly  foxy ;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  six, 
medium  in  size,  plump,  brown. 


442        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

i 

VERDAL 

(Vinifera) 
Aspiran  Blanc 

Verdal  is  one  of  the  standard  late  grapes  of  the  Pacific  slope, 
ripening  among  the  last.  The  grapes  are  seen  seldom  in  distant 
markets  and  the  quality  is  not  quite  good  enough  to  make  it 
a  very  great  favorite  for  home  plantations.  Vigor  and  hardiness 
of  vines  commend  it  as  do  the  large  and  handsome  fruits,  and 
these  qualities,  with  late  ripening,  will  probably  long  keep  it  on 
grape  lists  in  the  far  West.  The  description  is  compiled. 

Vines  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  productive ;  canes  rather 
slender,  half  erect.  Leaves  of  medium  size,  glabrous  on  both  surfaces, 
except  below  near  the  axis  of  the  main  nerve ;  sinuses  well  marked  and 
generally  closed,  giving  the  leaf  the  appearance  of  having  five  holes ; 
teeth  long,  unequal,  acuminate.  Bunches  large  to  very  large,  irregu- 
lar, long-conical,  usually  compact ;  shoulders  small  or  lacking  ;  berries 
large  or  very  large,  yellowish-green ;  skin  thick  but  tender ;  flesh  crisp, 
firm  ;  flavor  agreeable  but  not  rich ;  quality  good.  Season  very  late, 
keeping  and  shipping  well. 

VERGENNES 
(Labrusca) 

The  most  valuable  attribute  of  Vergennes  (Plate  XXIX)  is 
certainty  in  bearing.  The  vine  seldom  fails  to  bear  although  it 
often  overbears,  causing  variability  in  size  of  fruits  and  time  of 
ripening.  With  a  moderate  crop,  the  grapes  ripen  with  Con- 
cord, but  with  a  heavy  load  from  one  to  two  weeks  later. 
Vergennes  is  somewhat  unpopular  with  vineyardists  because 
of  the  sprawling  habit  of  the  vines  which  makes  them  untract- 
able  for  vineyard  operations ;  this  fault  is  obviated  by  grafting 
on  other  vines.  The  grapes  are  attractive,  the  quality  is  good, 
flavor  agreeable,  the  flesh  tender,  and  seeds  and  skin  are  not 
objectionable.  Vergennes  is  the  standard  late-keeping  grape 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  443 

for  northern  regions,  being  very  common  in  the  markets  as 
late  as  January.  The  original  vine  was  a  chance  seedling  in 
the  garden  of  William  E.  Greene,  Vergennes,  Vermont,  in  1874. 

Vine  variable  in  vigor,  doubtfully  hardy,  productive,  healthy. 
Canes  long,  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged,  strongly  flattened ;  tendrils 
continuous,  long,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  thin ;  upper  surface 
light  green,  glossy,  rugose ;  lower  surface  pale  green,  very  pubescent ; 
leaf  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  broadly  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  wide ; 
teeth  shallow.  Flowers  semi-sterile,  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  late,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  of  medium  size,  broad, 
cylindrical,  sometimes  single-shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel  with  numerous 
small  warts ;  brush  slender,  short,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  oval, 
light  and  dark  red  with  thin  bloom,  persistent ;  skin  thick,  tough, 
adherent,  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  juicy,  fine-grained,  somewhat 
stringy,  tender,  vinous ;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds  free,  one  to  five, 
blunt,  brown. 

WALTER 

(Vinifera,  Labrusca,  Bourquiniana) 

Were  it  not  almost  impossible  to  grow  healthy  vines  of  Walter, 
the  variety  would  rank  high  among  American  grapes.  But 
stunted  by  fungi  which  attack  leaves,  young  wood  and  fruit,  it 
is  possible  only  in  exceptionally  favorable  seasons  satisfactorily 
to  produce  crops  of  this  variety.  Besides  susceptibility  to 
diseases,  the  vines  are  fastidious  to  soils,  everywhere  variable  in 
growth  and  are  injured  in  cold  winters.  As  if  to  atone  for  the 
faults  of  the  vine,  the  fruit  of  Walter  is  almost  perfect,  lacking 
only  in  size  of  bunch  and  berry.  The  bunch  and  berry  resemble 
those  of  Delaware,  but  the  fruit  is  not  as  high  in  quality  as  that 
of  its  parents.  Walter  is  adapted  to  conditions  under  which 
Delaware  thrives.  A.  J.  Cay  wood,  Modena,  New  York,  grew 
this  variety  about  1850  from  seed  of  Delaware  pollinated  by 
Diana. 

Vine  vigorous.  Canes  medium  in  length  and  size,  dark  reddish- 
brown  with  thin  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened  ;  tendrils  intermit- 
tent, bifid.  Leaves  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth ; 


444        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

lower  surface  tinged  with  bronze,  heavily  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to  three 
with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  narrow ;  basal  sinus  lacking ;  lat- 
eral sinus  a  notch  if  present.  Flowers  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 
Fruit  early,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  medium  in  size,  broad, 
cylindrical,  usually  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  slender, 
with  small,  scattering  warts ;  brush  short,  slender,  green  with  brown 
tinge.  Berries  small,  ovate,  red,  glossy  with  thin  bloom,  persistent, 
firm ;  skin  very  tough,  adheres  slightly,  unpigmented ;  flesh  pale 
green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  somewhat  foxy,  vinous,  aromatic; 
good  to  very  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  four,  small,  sharp-pointed, 
light  brown. 

WILDER 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera) 

The  fruit  of  Wilder  is  surpassed  in  quality  and  appearance 
by  other  of  Rogers'  hybrids,  but  the  vine  is  the  most  reliable  of 
any  of  these  hybrid  sorts,  being  vigorous,  hardy,  productive, 
and,  although  somewhat  susceptible  to  mildew,  as  healthy  as 
any.  Wilder  is  not  as  well  known  in  the  markets  as  it  should 
be,  and  now  that  fungal  diseases  can  be  controlled  by  spraying 
should  be  more  commonly  planted  in  commercial  vineyards, 
especially  for  local  markets.  Wilder  is  one  of  the  forty-five 
Labrusca-Vinifera  hybrids  raised  by  E.  S.  Rogers,  Salem,  Mas- 
sachusetts, having  been  described  first  in  1858. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  productive,  susceptible  to  mildew.  Canes 
long,  numerous,  reddish-brown,  darker  at  the  nodes ;  internodes  long ; 
tendrils  intermittent,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  large,  irregularly  round ; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  smooth;  lower  surface  pale  green, 
pubescent;  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute;  petiolar  sinus 
deep,  narrow,  often  closed  and  overlapping;  basal  sinus  lacking; 
lateral  sinus  shallow,  narrow,  or  a  mere  notch  when  present.  Flowers 
self -sterile,  mid-season ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early  mid-season,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  variable 
in  size,  short,  broad,  tapering,  heavily  single-shouldered,  loose ;  pedicel 
long,  thick  with  numerous  warts  ;  brush  thick,  green  with  tinge  of  red. 
Berries  large,  oval,  purplish-black  with  heavy  bloom,  persistent,  firm ; 
skin  thick,  adherent  to  pulp,  with  bright  red  pigment,  astringent; 
flesh  green,  translucent,  juicy,  tender ;  good.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to 
five,  long,  light  brown. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  445 

WlNCHELL 

(Labrusca,  Vinifera,  ^Estivalis) 

Green  Mountain 

The  vines  of  Winchell  (Plate  XXX)  are  vigorous,  hardy, 
healthy,  productive,  and  the  fruit  is  early,  of  high  quality  and 
ships  well  —  altogether  a  most  admirable  early  grape.  There 
are  some  minor  faults  which  become  drawbacks  in  the  culture  of 
Winchell.  The  berries,  and  under  some  conditions  the  bunches, 
are  small  and  the  bunch  is  loose  with  a  large  shoulder.  Some- 
times this  looseness  becomes  so  pronounced  as  to  give  a  strag- 
gling, poorly-formed  cluster ;  and  the  shoulder,  when  as  large  as 
the  cluster  itself,  which  often  happens,  makes  the  cluster  un- 
sightly. The  grapes  shell  when  fully  ripe,  a  serious  fault. 
Again,  while  the  crop  usually  ripens  evenly,  there  are  seasons 
when  two  pickings  are  needed  because  of  the  unevenness  in 
ripening.  Lastly,  the  skin  is  thin  and  there  is  danger  in  un- 
favorable seasons  of  the  berries  cracking,  although  this  is  seldom 
a  serious  fault.  These  defects  do  not  offset  the  several  good 
characters  of  Winchell  which  make  it  the  standard  early 
green  grape,  deserving  to  rank  with  the  best  early  grapes  of 
any  color.  The  original  vine  was  raised  by  James  Milton 
Clough,  Stamford,  Vermont,  about  1850  from  seed  of  an  un- 
known purple  grape. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  very  productive.  Canes  long,  nu- 
merous, slender,  dark  brown  with  thin  bloom ;  nodes  enlarged,  flat- 
tened ;  tendrils  continuous,  sometimes  intermittent,  bifid.  Leaves 
large ;  upper  surface  light  green,  glossy,  smooth ;  lower  surface  dull 
green,  tinged  with  bronze,  faintly  pubescent ;  *lobes  three  to  five  with 
terminal  lobe  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  deep ;  basal  sinus  shallow ;  teeth 
shallow,  wide.  Flowers  fertile,  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  and  ships  well.  Clusters  long,  slender,  cylindri- 
cal, often  with  a  long  shoulder,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  slender  with 
few  inconspicuous  warts ;  brush  greenish-white.  Berries  small, 
round,  light  green,  persistent,  soft ;  skin  marked  with  small,  reddish- 


446        MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPE-GROWING 

brown  spots,  thin,  tender,  slightly  astringent ;  flesh  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  tender,  fine-grained,  sweet ;  very  good  to  best.  Seeds  free,  one 
to  four,  small,  plump,  wide  and  long,  blunt,  brown. 


WOODRUFF 
(Labrusca,  Vinifera?) 

Woodruff  is  a  handsome,  showy,  brick-red  grape  with  large 
clusters  and  berries,  but  its  taste  belies  its  looks,  for  the  flesh 
is  coarse  and  the  flavor  poor.  The  variety  would  not  be  worth 
attention  were  it  not  for  its  excellent  vine  characters;  the 
vines  are  hardy,  productive  and  healthy.  The  grapes  ripen  a 
little  before  Concord  and  come  on  the  market  at  a  favorable 
time,  especially  for  a  red  grape.  Woodruff  originated  from  C. 
H.  Woodruff,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  as  a  chance  seedling  which 
came  up  in  1874  and  fruited  first  in  1877. 

Vine  very  vigorous,  hardy.  Canes  dark  brown ;  nodes  enlarged, 
flattened  ;  tendrils  continuous,  bifid  or  trifid.  Leaves  round  ;  upper 
surface  light  green,  dull,  rugose ;  lower  surface  greenish-white,  pubes- 
cent ;  leaf  usually  not  lobed  with  terminus  acute  ;  petiolar  sinus  wide  ; 
basal  sinus  lacking ;  lateral  sinus  shallow  and  narrow  when  present ; 
teeth  shallow.  Flowers  semi-fertile,  early ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  ripening  before  Concord.  Clusters  broad,  widely  tapering, 
usually  single-shouldered,  compact ;  pedicel  short,  thick,  smooth ; 
brush  long,  pale  green.  Berries  large,  round,  dark  red,  dull,  firm ; 
skin  thin,  tender,  adherent,  slightly  astringent ;  flesh  pale  green,  trans- 
lucent, juicy,  tough,  coarse,  very  foxy ;  fair  in  quality.  Seeds  ad- 
herent, one  to  five,  broad,  short,  plump,  blunt,  brown. 

WORDEN 
(Labrusca) 

Of  the  many  offspring  of  Concord,  Worden  (Plate  XXXI)  is 
best  known  and  most  meritorious.  The  grapes  differ  chiefly 
from  those  of  Concord  in  having  larger  berries  and  bunches,  in 
having  better  quality  and  in  being  a  week  to  ten  days  earlier. 


VARIETIES   OF   GRAPES  447 

The  vine  is  equally  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous  and  productive  but 
is  more  fastidious  in  its  adaptations  to  soil,  although  now  and 
then  it  does  even  better.  The  chief  fault  of  the  variety  is  that 
the  fruit  cracks  badly,  often  preventing  the  profitable  marketing 
of  a  crop.  Besides  this  tenderness  of  skin,  the  fruit-pulp  of 
Worden  is  softer  than  that  of  Concord,  there  is  more  juice,  and 
the  keeping  qualities  are  not  as  good,  so  that  the  grapes  hardly 
ship  as  well  as  those  of  the  more  commonly  grown  grape. 
Worden  is  very  popular  in  northern  grape  regions  both  for  com- 
mercial plantations  and  the  garden.  It  is  a  more  desirable 
inhabitant  of  the  garden,  because  of  higher  quality  of  fruit  than 
Concord,  and  under  conditions  well  suited  to  it  is  better  as  a 
commercial  variety,  as  the  fruit  is  handsomer  as  well  as  of 
better  quality.  In  the  markets  the  fruit  ought  to  sell  for  a 
higher  price  than  Concord  if  desired  for  immediate  consumption, 
and  if  it  can  be  harvested  promptly,  as  it  does  not  hang  well  on 
the  vines.  Its  earlier  season  is  against  it  for  a  commercial 
variety  and,  with  the  defects  mentioned,  will  prevent  its  taking 
the  place  of  Concord  to  a  great  degree.  Worden  was  originated 
by  Schuyler  Worden,  Minetto,  Oswego  County,  New  York, 
from  seed  of  Concord  planted  about  1863. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  large,  thick, 
dark  brown  with  reddish  tinge ;  nodes  enlarged,  flattened ;  tendrils 
continuous,  slender,  bifid,  sometimes  trifid.  Young  leaves  tinged 
on  the  under  side  and  along  the  margins  of  upper  side  with  rose- 
carmine.  Leaves  large,  thick ;  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy, 
smooth ;  lower  surface  light  bronze,  pubescent ;  leaf  usually  not 
lobed ;  petiolar  sinus  wide,  often  urnshaped ;  teeth  shallow.  Flowers 
fertile,  mid-season ;  stamens  upright. 

Fruit  early.  Clusters  large,  long,  broad,  tapering,  usually  single- 
shouldered,  compact;  pedicel  slender  with  a  few  small  warts;  brush 
long,  light  green.  Berries  large,  round,  dark  purplish-black,  glossy 
with  heavy  bloom,  firm ;  skin  tender,  cracks  badly,  adheres  slightly, 
contains  dark  red  pigment,  astringent.  Flesh  green,  translucent, 
juicy,  fine-grained,  tough,  foxy,  sweet,  mild  ;  good  to  very  good.  Seeds 
adherent,  one  to  five,  large,  broad,  short,  blunt,  brown. 


448        MANUAL  OF   AMERICAN   GRAPE-GROWING 

WYOMING 

(Labrusca) 
Hopkins  Early  Red,  Wilmington  Red,  Wyoming  Red 

Such  value  as  Wyoming  (Plate  XXXII)  possesses  lies  in  the 
hardiness,  productiveness  and  healthiness  of  the  vine.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  fruit  is  very  good,  the  bunches  are  well  formed 
and  composed  of  rich  amber-colored  berries  of  medium  size. 
The  quality,  however,  is  poor,  being  that  of  the  wild  Labrusca 
in  foxiness  of  flavor  and  in  flesh  characters.  It  is  not  nearly  as 
valuable  as  some  other  of  the  red  Labruscas  hitherto  described 
and  can  hardly  be  recommended  either  for  the  garden  or  the 
vineyard.  Wyoming  was  introduced  by  S.  J.  Parker  of  Ithaca, 
New  York,  who  states  that  it  came  from  Pennsylvania  in  1861. 

Vine  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  productive.  Canes  numerous, 
slender,  dark  reddish-brown  covered  with  blue  bloom  ;  nodes  enlarged, 
frequently  flattened;  tendrils  continuous,  short,  bifid.  Leaves  of 
average  size  and  thickness ;  upper  surface  light  green,  dull,  smooth ; 
lower  surface  dull  green  with  tinge  of  bronze,  pubescent ;  lobes  one  to 
three  with  terminus  acute ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow,  wide ;  basal  sinus 
usually  wanting ;  lateral  sinus  shallow  and  wide  when  present ;  teeth 
shallow.  Flowers  sterile,  mid-season  ;  stamens  reflexed. 

Fruit  early,  keeps  well.  Clusters  slender,  cylindrical,  compact; 
pedicel  short,  slender  with  small  warts ;  brush  slender,  pale  green 
with  brown  tinge.  Berries  medium,  round,  rich  amber  red  with  thin 
bloom,  persistent,  firm;  skin  tender,  adherent,  astringent;  flesh  pale 
green,  translucent,  juicy,  tough,  solid,  strongly  foxy,  vinous ;  poor  in 
quality.  Seeds  adherent,  one  to  three,  slightly  notched,  light  brown. 


INDEX 

(Names  of  species,  and  synonyms  of  varietal  names,  are  in  italics.) 


Actoni,  330. 

Adaptations  of  stocks,  66. 

Adlum,  John,  mentioned,  58. 

Admirable,  373. 

Adoxus  obscurus,  216. 

Aestivalis  grapes,  11. 

Affinity  of  stock  and  cion,  67. 

Agawam,  331. 

Air  currents,  27. 

Alabama,  401. 

Alexander,  5,  6. 

Alexander,  391. 

Alicante,  for  forcing,  198. 

Alleys,  75. 

Almeria,  331. 

Amadas  &  Barlowe,  mentioned,  5. 

America,  332. 

American  Muscadine,  435. 

Aminia,  333. 

Anaheim  disease,  226. 

Anthony,  on  grafting,  47. 

Anthracnose,  control  of,  223. 

description  of,  223. 
Aramon  X  Rupestris,  2,  64. 
Arbors,  training  vines  on,  142. 
Arkansas,  345,  357. 
Arnold's  Hybrid,  422. 
Aspiran  Blanc,  442. 
August  Giant,  333. 

Bacchus,  324. 
Bagging  grapes,  293. 

cost  of,  294. 
Bakator,  335. 

Barbarossa,  for  forcing,  197. 
Bark,  structure  of,  303. 
Barry,  335. 

Bartram,  on  the  Alexander,  7. 
2G 


Beach  Grape,  313. 
Beacon,  336. 
Beacons  field,  346. 
Beak  denned,  308. 
Bench  grafting,  50. 

essentials  of,  50. ! 

operation  of,  51. 

preparing  cuttings  for,  51. 
Berckmans,  337. 
Berry,  characters  of,  308. 
Bioletti,  on  callusing  beds,  56. 

on  grafting,  48,  52. 

on  pruning  in  California,  151. 

on  resistant  stocks,  63. 

quoted,  18. 
Bird  Grape,  312. 
Bitter-rot,  225. 
Black  Cape,  391. 
Black  Cornichon,  429. 
Black  Eagle,  338. 
Black  El  Paso,  401. 
Black  German,  406. 
Black  Hamburg,  for  forcing,  197. 
Black  July,  401. 
Black  Malvoise,  339. 
Black  Morocco,  339. 
Black  Muscat,  415. 
Black  rot,  control  of,  320. 

description  of,  319. 
Black  Spanish,  401. 
Bloom  defined,  301. 
Blooming  dates  of  grapes,  288. 
Blooming,  time  of,  305. 
Blue  French,  401. 
Blue  Grape,  318,  322. 
Borders  in  graperies,  making,  195. 

care  of,  195. 
Bottsi,  382. 


449 


450 


INDEX 


Bowed  canes,  174. 

Branches  defined,  301. 

Brighton,  340. 

Brilliant,  341. 

Brown,  342. 

Brown  French,  382. 

Brush  defined,  307. 

Buckland  Sweetwater,  for  forcing,  197. 

Buds,  characters  of,  304. 

defined,  304. 
Bull,  435. 

Bull,  Ephraim  W.,  mentioned^  9. 
Bull  Grape,  310. 
Bullace,  435. 
Bullace  Grape,  310. 
Bullet,  435. 
Bullet  Grape,  310. 
Bullitt,  439. 
Bunch  Grape,  318. 
Burgundy,  401. 
Bush  Grape,  312. 
Bushy  Grape,  310. 
By-products  of  the  grape,  269. 

Callusing  bed,  56. 

Campbell  Early,  342. 

Canada,  343. 

Canadian  Hamburg,  422. 

Canadian  Hybrid,  422. 

Canandaigua,  344. 

Canandaigua  Lake  grape  region,  21. 

Cane-renewal,  116. 

Canes,  characters  of,  303. 

defined,  301. 

disposition  of,  in  pruning,  124. 
Care  of  young  vines,  87. 
Carman,  344. 
Catawba,  345. 

history  of,  8. 
Catawba  Tokay,  345. 
Catch  crops,  89,  90. 
Cato,  on  grafting,  45. 

quoted,  76. 

Cayuga  Lake  grape  region,  21. 
Central  Lake  grape  region,  20. 
Chalaza  defined,  308. 
Champagne,  253. 
Champagne  industry,  21. 
Champion,  346. 
Chasselas  Golden,  347. 
Chasselas  Dore,  347. 


Chasselas  Rose,  348. 

Chautauqua,  348. 

Chautauqua  grape-belt,  18. 

Chautauqua  training,  125. 

Cherokee,  345. 

Chicken  Grape,  317,  318. 

Cigar  Box  Grape,  401. 

Clevener,  349. 

Climate  and  grape-growing,  23. 

Clinton,  15,  350. 

Colerain,  351. 

Columbian  Imperial,  351. 

Columbian  Jumbo,  351. 

Commercial  factors,  30. 

Concord,  352. 

history  of,  9. 
Constantia,  391. 
Cooperative      fertilizer      experiments, 

102. 

Cordon  pruning,  153. 
Cordons,  horizontal,  176. 

vertical,  175. 
Cottage,  354. 
Coulure,  226. 
Cover-crops,  89,  91. 
Craponius  incequalis,  217. 
Cream  of  tartar,  270. 
Cross-pollination,  284. 
Croton,  355. 
Crown-gall,  225. 
Cryptosporella  viticola,  224. 
Cunningham,  356. 
Cuttings,  dormant,  38. 

hard-wood,  38. 

herbaceous,  42. 

planting,  39. 

single-eye,  40. 

time  to  make,  38. 
Cutting  wood,  selecting,  38. 
Cut- worms  on  grapes,  315. 
Cynthiana,  357. 

Dead-arm  disease,  control  of,  324. 

description  of,  324. 
Delaware,  11,  358. 
Depth  to  plant,  86. 
Desmia  funeralis,  216. 
Determinants  of  grape  regions,  22. 
Devereaux,  401. 
Diamond,  359. 
Diana,  360. 


INDEX 


451 


Diaphragm,  characters  of,  303. 

defined,  301. 
Digging  holes,  83. 
Direct  producers,  71. 
Direction  of  rows,  74. 
Distances  in  planting,  75. 
Dodrelabi,  379. 
Dorchester,  391. 
Double-headed  vines,  174. 
Double  Kniffin,  135 
Downing,  361. 
Downy  mildew,  control  of,  222. 

description  of,  220. 
Dracut  Amber,  362. 
Drainage  for  grapes,  28,  77. 
Duck-shot  Grape,  318. 
Dunn,  382. 
Dutchess,  362. 
Dynamite  in  digging  holes,  84. 

Early  Champion,  346. 
Early  Daisy,  363. 
Early  Ohio,  364. 
Early  Victor,  364. 
Eaton,  365. 
Eclipse,  366. 
Eden,  367. 

Egg  Harbor  grape  region,  22. 
Eldorado,  368. 
Elvira,  369. 

Emasculating  grape-flowers,  279. 
Emperor,  369. 
Empire  State,  370. 
Etta,  371. 
Eumelan,  371. 

European  grapes,  in  eastern  America, 
184. 

grafting,  186. 

varieties  for  eastern  America,  191. 
Everbearing  Grape,  312. 
Exposures  for  grapes,  34. 

Factors  limiting  yield,  105. 
Faith,  372. 
Fall  Grape,  318. 
Fancher,  345. 
Fan-training,  131. 
Feher  Szagos,  373. 
Fern,  373. 
Fern  Munson,  373. 
Fertilizers,  applying,  106. 


Fertilizers,  —  Continued. 

effects  on  leaves,  102. 

effects  on  vines,  102. 

effects  on  yield,  101,  102 

experiment,  98. 

necessity  of,  97. 

when  needed,  106. 
Fidia  viticida,  206. 
Fitting  land,  78. 
Flame  Tokay,  374. 
Flesh,  characters  of,  308. 
Florida  Grape,  312. 
Flowers,  373. 

Flower,  characters  of,  305. 
Fontainebleau,  347. 
Fox  Grape,  317,  324. 
Fox  Grape,  435. 
Fox  grapes,  cultivation  of,  7. 
Foxiness  denned,  307. 
French  Grape,  358. 
Frost  Grape,  317. 
Frosts  and  grape-growing,  25. 
Fruit-bearing,  manner  of,  113. 
Fruit,  characters  of,  307. 

parts  of,  307. 
Fungi,  determinants  of  grape  regions, 

29. 
Fungous  diseases  of  the  grape,  218. 

Gaertner,  375.    . 
Geneva,  376. 
Gibbs  Grape,  391. 

Gladwin,     on     Chautauqua    training, 
126. 

on  Keuka  training,  129. 

on  vineyard  returns,  248. 
Glomerella  rufomacullans,  225. 
"Go-devil,"  119. 
Goethe,  377. 
Gold  Coin,  377. 
Golden  Chasselas,  424. 
Grading  grapes,  235. 
Grading  land,  78. 
Grafting,  45. 

at  New  York*  Station,  46. 

bundling  grafts  after,  55. 

essentials  of,  45. 

European  grapes,  186. 

rooted  cuttings,  56. 
Grafted  vineyards,  care  of,  48. 
Grafting  wax,  54. 


452 


INDEX 


Grafts,  care  of,  in  nursery,  58. 

number  made  per  hour,  56. 
Grape,  botany  of,  300. 

by-products  of,  269. 

domestication  of,  1. 

habitats  of,  4. 

habits  of  growth  of,  302. 

mutations  in  the,  60. 

number  of  species  of,  1. 

organs  of,  300. 

pests  of,  204. 

products,  250. 
Grape-berry  moth,  control  of,  215. 

life  history  of,  213. 
Grape-breeding,  273. 

results  of,  282. 
Grape-curculio,  217. 
Grape  hawk-moth,  217. 
Grape-hybrids,  274. 
Grape-juice,  commercial  making,  258. 

development  of  industry,  257. 

making  at  home,  262. 

regions  in  which  made,  257. 
Grape  leaf-folder,  216. 
Grape  leaf-hopper,  control  of,  213. 

life  history  of,  211. 
Grape  regions,  determinants  of,  16. 

in  California,  18. 
Grape  root-worm,  Calif ornian,  216. 

eastern,  control  of,  206. 

life  history  of,  206. 
Grape  seedlings,  37. 
Graperies,  193. 

borders  in,  195. 

care  of  vines  in,  201. 

construction  of,  193. 

essentials  of,  194. 

heating,  194. 

varieties  for,  196. 

ventilating,  194,  202. 

watering,  202. 
Grapes,  American,  4. 

classified  as  to  self-fertility,  296. 

domestic  use  of,  271. 

European,  2. 

forcing,  194. 

immunity  to  disease,  303. 

immunity  to  insects,  303. 

propagation  of,  37. 

under  glass,  192. 
Grape-vinegar,  269. 


Grape-vine  root-borer,  217. 
Grape-vine     flea-beetle,     control     of, 
209. 

life  history  of,  208. 
Greeley,  Horace,  mentioned,  9. 
Green  Early,  378. 
Green  Mountain,  445. 
Green  Scuppernong,  435. 
Grein  Golden,  378. 
Grizzly  Frontignan,  for  forcing,  197. 
Gros  Colman,  379. 

for  forcing,  197. 
Guignardia  Bidwellii,  220. 

Haltica  chalybea,  209. 
Hardiness  of  grapes,  302. 
Hartford,  380. 
Hartzell,  mentioned,  213. 
Harvesting,  in  California,  243. 

in  the  East,  230. 

Muscadine  grapes,  240. 
Hawkins,    Captain    John,    mentioned, 

5. 

Hayes,  381. 

Heading-back  canes,  116. 
Headlight,  281. 
Heart-leaved  Vitis,  317. 
Heating  vineyards,  25. 
Heeling-in  vines,  82. 
Helene,  391. 

Herbaceous  cuttings,  42. 
Herbemont,  12,  382. 
Herbert,  383. 
Hercules,  384. 
Hermann  grape  region,  22. 
Hickman,  435. 
Hicks,  285. 
Hidalgo,  385. 
Highland,  386. 
Hilgarde,  373. 
Hilum  defined,  308. 
Hopkins,  387. 
Hopkins  Early  Red.  448. 
Horizontal  cordons,  176. 
Hosford,  388. 

Hudson  horizontal  training,  141. 
Hudson  River  grape  region,  21. 
Humidity  in  grape-growing,  25. 
Hunt,  382. 
Husmann,  on  making  grape-juice,  258. 

on  raisin-making,  264. 


INDEX 


453 


Husmann   &    Bearing,    on   harvesting 

Muscadine  grapes,  240. 
on  pruning  Muscadine  grapes,  143. 
Hybrid  Franc,  388. 
Hybridizing  grapes,  278. 
Hybrids,  secondary,  276. 

Ideal,  389. 

Improved  Kniffin,  135. 

Inflorescences,  number  of,  in  species, 
304. 

Insect  pests,  204. 

Insects  as  determinants  of  grape  re- 
gions, 29. 

Internodes  defined,  301. 

lona,  390. 

Irrigation,  95. 

Isabella,  390. 

Isabella,  391. 

Isabella  Seedling,  392. 

Israella,  392. 

Ives,  393. 

Jack,  401. 

James,  394. 

Janesville,  394. 

J agues,  401. 

Jarring  Muscadine  grapes,  241. 

Jefferson,  395. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  on  native  grapes,  5. 

Jessica,  396. 

Jewel,  397. 

Joannenc,  402. 

Jordan,  415. 

July  Sherry,  401. 

Kay's  Seedling,  382. 

Keller's  White,  345. 

Kensington,  398. 

Kentucky  Vineyard  Society,  7. 

Keuka  Lake  grape  region,  21. 

King,  399. 

Kittredge,  393. 

Kniffin,  Wm.,  mentioned,  132. 

Labels  for  packages,  238. 

Labor,  determinant  of  grape  regions, 

32. 

Ladies'  Choice,  358. 
Lady,  399. 
Lady  Downs,  for  forcing,  198. 


Lady  Washington,  400. 
Lake  Erie  grape  region,  22. 
Laterals  defined,  301. 
Lawton  grape  region,  22. 
Layering,  42. 

dormant  wood,  43. 

essentials  of,  43. 

green  wood,  44. 

to  fill  vacancies,  44. 
Laying  down  vines,  295. 
Laying  out  vineyards,  74. 
Leaf-margins,  characters  of,  307. 
Leaf,  characters  of,  307. 

parts  of,  306. 
Lebanon,  345. 

Legaux,  Peter,  mentioned,  7. 
Leif  the  Lucky,  mentioned,  5. 
Lenoir,  13,  401. 
Lignan  Blanc,  403. 
Lime,  effects  of,  101,  104. 
Lincoln,  345. 
Lindley,  402. 
Listan  Blanc,  402. 
Little  Grape,  318. 
Little  Winter  Grape,  318. 
Long,  356. 

Longworth,  Nicholas,  mentioned,  8. 
Lucile,  403. 
Luglienga,  402. 
Lutie,  404. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  210. 
Malaga,  405. 
Mammoth  Catawba,  435. 
Marion,  406. 
Marion  Port,  406. 
Marketing,  230,  246. 

cooperative,  246. 
Markets,  accessibility,  30. 

general  versus  local,  31. 
Marking  for  planting,  79. 
Martha,  407. 
Massasoit,  408. 
Maxatawney,  409. 
McKee,  382. 
McPike,  405. 
Mead's  Seedling,  345. 
Mealy-bug,  202. 
Memory,  409. 

Memythrus  polistiformis,  217. 
Mendel's  laws,  281. 


454 


INDEX 


Merceron,  345. 

Merrimac,  410. 

Michigan,  345. 

Mildew  in  graperies,  203. 

Mills,  411. 

Mish,  411. 

Mission,  412. 

Missouri  Riesling,  413. 

Montefiore,  413. 

Moore  Early,  414. 

Moore,  Jacob,  mentioned,  276. 

Moscatello,  415. 

Moscatello  Black,  415. 

Mountain  Grape,  313,  318. 

Moyer,  415. 

Mayer's  Early  Red,  415. 

Muncy,  345. 

Munson,  mentioned,  277. 

on  pruning,  136. 

on  resistant  species,  63. 
Munson  method  of  pruning,  136. 
Muscadine  Grape,  310. 
Muscadine,  435. 

Muscadine  grapes  for  wine,  256. 
Muscatel,  416. 
Muscat  Hamburg,  417. 

for  forcing,  197. 
Muscat  of  Alexandria,  418. 
Mustang  Grape,  323. 

of  Florida,  312. 
Mutations  in  improving  grapes,  277. 

Napoleon  I,  mentioned,  196. 

Neal,  382. 

Niagara,  418. 

Niagara  grape  region,  20. 

Nitrogen,  benefits  from,  101. 

Noah,  419. 

Nodes  defined,  301. 

Nodosities,  66. 

Northern  ^Estivalis,  322. 

Northern  Muscadine,  420. 

Northern  Summer  Grape,  322. 

Norton,  421. 

Norton,  Dr.  D.  N.,  mentioned,  11. 

Noyes,  Dr.,  mentioned,  15. 

Number  of  vines  to  the  acre,  76. 

Ohio,  401. 

Ohio  River  grape  region,  22. 


Oporto,  422. 
Othello,  422. 
Ozark,  423. 

Packages  for  California,  245. 

for  eastern  America,  236. 

for  Muscadine  grapes,  243. 
Packing  houses,  233. 

construction  of,  234. 

cost  of,  233. 
Packing,  in  the  East,  237. 

Muscadine  grapes,  241. 
Packing  tables,  234. 
Palomino,  424. 
Paw  Paw  grape  region,  22. 
Payne's  Early,  391. 
Peabody,  424. 
Pedicel  defined,  305. 
Peduncle  defined,  305. 
Perfection,  425. 

Pergolas,  training  vines  on,  142. 
Perkins,  426. 
Pests  in  graperies,  202. 
Petiole,  characters  of,  307. 
Pholus  achemon,  217. 
Phosphorus,  benefits  from,  101. 
Phylloxera,  13,  61,  205. 

control  of,  206. 
Phylloxera  vastatrix,  205. 
Pickers,  231. 
Picking,  accounts  for,  232. 

appliances,  232. 

time  of,  231. 
Pigeon  Grape,  318. 
Pine-wood  Grape,  320. 
Piquette,  making,  270. 
Planting,  83,  85. 

distances,  75. 

grafted  vines,  68. 

in  graperies,  198. 
Plasmopara  viticola,  220. 
Pliny,  mentioned,  2. 
Plowing  the  vineyard,  94. 

to  combat  pests,  95. 
Pocklington,  426. 
Pollen,  characters  of,  306. 
Pollinating  in  hybridizing,  280. 
Polychrosis  viteana,  214. 
Pomace  as  a  by-product,  270. 
Possum  Grape,  317. 
Posts,  119. 


INDEX 


455 


Posts,  —  Continued. 

bracing,  120. 

material,  119. 

setting,  120. 
Post-oak  Grape,  320. 
Post-oak  grapes,  13. 
Potassium,  benefits  from,  101. 
Poughkeepsie,  427. 
Powdery  mildew,  control  of,  223. 

description  of,  222. 
Powell,  358. 

Pre-cooling  grapes,  245. 
Prentiss,  428. 

Preparation  for  planting,  76,  82. 
Preparing  vines  for  planting,  80,  81. 
Prince  Edward,  356. 
Prince,  W.  R.,  mentioned,  274. 
Profits  from  fertilizers,  101. 
Pruning,  before  planting,  160. 

cordon  method,  153. 

European  grapes  in  eastern  America, 
107. 

fan-shaped,  153,  172. 

first  summer,  160. 

first  winter,  161. 

for  fruit,  112. 

for  wood,  112. 

in  eastern  America,  108. 

Muscadine  grapes,  143. 

on  the  Pacific  slope,  150. 

principles  of,  111. 

second  summer,  161. 

second  winter,  163. 

single  vertical  cordon,  157. 

summer,  115. 

third  summer,  167. 

third  winter,  168. 

to  regulate  the  crop,  110. 

to  regulate  the  vine,  111. 

unilateral  horizontal  cordon,  158. 

vase-form,  153. 

winter,  114. 

work  of,  118. 

Pruning  and  training  distinguished,  109. 
Prunings,  collecting,  118. 
Purple  Cornichon,  429. 

Quality  defined,  307. 

Raffia,  in  grafting,  54. 
Raisin  industry,  seat  of,  263. 


Raisin-making,  account  of,  264. 
Raisin  output,  value  of,  263. 
Raisins,  classes  of,  266. 

dipping  and  scalding,  264. 

packing,  265. 

seeded,  267. 

varieties  for,  263. 
Randall,  331. 
Raphe  defined,  308. 
Rating  as  to  resistance  to  phylloxera, 

66. 

Rattling,  224. 
Rebecca,  429. 
Reciprocal  influence  of  stock  and  cion, 

68. 

Red  Eagle,  430. 
Red  River,  357. 
Red-spider  in  graperies,  202. 
Refrigerator  cars  for  grapes,  245. 
Regal,  431. 

Rejuvenating  old  vines,  147. 
Renewal  by  canes,  116. 

by  spurs,  117. 

Renewing  fruiting  wood,  116. 
Requa,  431. 

Returns  from  Muscadine  grapes,  242. 
Ricketts,  J.  H.,  mentioned,  274. 
Ringing  grape  vines,  289. 

operation  of,  290. 

results  of,  291. 

theory  of,  290. 
Riparia  Gloire,  64,  65. 
Riparia  grande  glabre,  64,  65. 
Riparia  Solonis,  64. 
Ripening  dates  for  grapes,  296. 
Ripe-rot,  control  of,  225. 

description  of,  225. 
River  Grape,  314. 
Riverbank  Grape,  314. 
Riverbank  grapes,  13. 
Riverside  Grape,  314. 
Roanoke,  435. 

Robins,  depredations  of,  293. 
Rochester,  432. 
Rock  Grap*e,  313. 
Rogers,  E.  S.,  mentioned,  274. 
Ronvnel,  433. 

Rommel,  Jacob,  mentioned,  276. 
Root,  its  parts  named,  301. 
Root-forms  of  grapes,  67. 
Rootlets  defined,  301. 


456 


INDEX 


Root-tip  defined,  301. 

Rosaki,  433. 

Rose  chafer,  control  of,  211. 

life  history  of,  210. 
Rose  of  Peru,  434. 
Rose  of  Tennessee,  345. 
Rotundifolia  grapes,  9. 
Ruff,  358. 
Rupestris  St.  George,  64. 

Salem,  435. 
Sand  Grape,  313. 
Sandusky  grape  region,  22. 
Sanitation  in  the  vineyard,  227. 
Saratoga,  345. 
Scuppernong,  310,  435. 
Seasonal  sum  of  heat,  24. 
Secretary,  436. 
Seedlings,  selecting,  37. 
Seeds,  as  by-products,  271. 

characters  of,  308. 

parts  of,  308. 
Selecting  vines,  81. 
Selection  in  improving  grapes,  277. 
Self-sterility  in  grapes,  285. 

cause  of,  286. 

remedy  for,  287. 
Senasqua,  437. 

Seneca  Lake  grape  region,  21. 
Shelling,  424. 

Shipping  from  California,  245, 
Shoots,  characters  of,  303. 

defined,  301. 

disposition  of,  in  training,  123. 

drooping,  in  training,  132. 

horizontal,  in  training,  141. 

upright,  in  training,  125. 
Single-eye  cuttings,  40. 

making,  41. 

planting,  41. 

Single-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffin,  132. 
Singleton,  345. 
Single  vertical  cordon,  157. 
Sites  for  vineyards,  26,  32. 
Skin,  characters  of,  308. 
Smith,  Captain  John,  mentioned,  5. 
Smudging  vineyards,  25. 
Soil  adaptations,  29. 

fertility,  28. 
Soils  for  grapes,  27. 

ideal,  28. 


Soils  for  grapes,  —  Continued. 

over-rich,  107. 

uneven,  105. 
Sour  Winter  Grape,  317. 
Southern  ^Estivalis,  321. 
Southern  Fox  Grape,  310. 
Spanish  Grape,  318. 
Species,  conspectus  of,  310. 

resistant  to  phylloxera,  62. 
Sphaceloma  ampelinum,  223. 
Sports  in  improving  grapes,  277. 
Spraying  suggestions,  228. 
Springstein,  401. 
Spurs  defined,  301. 
Spur-renewal,  117. 
Staking  vines,  162. 
Stamens,  characters  of,  306. 
Stem  defined,  301. 

its  parts  named,  301. 
Stocks,  resistant  to  phylloxera,  61. 

for  American  grapes,  69. 

for  European  grapes,  69. 
Storage-room  for  grapes,  239. 
Storing  grapes,  238. 
Stripping,  118. 
Suckers  defined,  301. 
Sugar  Grape,  313. 
Sultana,  438. 
Sultanina,  438. 
Summer  Grape,  318. 
Summer  grapes,  11. 
Summer  pruning,  115. 
Swamp  Grape,  318. 
Sweet-scented  Grape,  314. 
Sweetwater,  347. 
Syrian,  for  forcing,  198. 

Talman's  Seedling,  346. 

Tap-root  defined,  301. 

Taylor,  439. 

Tekomah,  343. 

Tendrils,  characters  of,  304. 

defined,  301. 

Theophrastus,  on  grafting,  45. 
Thinning  in  graperies,  201. 
Thompson's  Seedless,  438. 
Thrips,  211. 

in  graperies,  202. 
Tillage,  92. 

methods,  93. 

time  to  cease,  95. 


INDEX 


457 


Tillage,  —  Continued. 

tools  for,  93. 
Time  to  plant,  84. 
Tokay,  345. 
Tongue  grafting,  52. 
Training,  Chautauqua  method,  125. 

classification  of  methods,  125. 

in  eastern  America,  123. 

fan-method,  131. 

in  graperies,  198. 

Keuka  method,  139. 
Trellises,  119. 
Triumph,  440. 
Tuberosities,    caused     by    phylloxera, 

66. 

Turkey  Grape,  320. 
Two-trunk  Kniffin,  135. 
Tying,  122. 
Typhlocyba  comes,  211. 

Ulster,  441. 
Umbrella  Kniffin,  134. 
Uncinula  necator,  222. 
Unilateral  horizontal  cordon,  158. 

Valk,  Dr.,  mentioned,  274. 

Varieties  of  European  grapes  for  eastern 

America,  191. 

Varieties  resistant  to  phylloxera,  62. 
Verdal,  442. 
Vergennes,  442. 
Vertical  canes,  174. 

cordons,  175. 
Vinegar  from  grapes,  269. 
Vines,    nursery    versus    home    grown, 
59. 

"pedigreed,"  59. 

rejuvenating  old,  147. 

resistant  to  phylloxera,  61. 

young,  care  of,  87. 

Vineyard  grafting,  in  eastern  America, 
45. 

on  Pacific  slope,  48. 
Vineyard,  management,  73. 

returns  in  the  East,  247. 

sanitation,  227. 
.    sites,  32. 

Vintage,  time  of,  254. 
Virgil,  on  soils,  28, 

quoted,  31,  34,  37. 
Virginia  Amber,  345. 


Vitis,  genus  defined,  308. 
Vitis  cestivalis,  11,  318. 

Bourquiniana,  11,  321. 
glauca,  321. 
Lincecumii,  13,  320. 

Berlandieri,  318. 

bicolor,  322. 

candicans,  323. 

cordifolia,  317. 

Labrusca,  7,  324. 

Munsoniana,  312. 

riparia,  314.     (Syn.  of  V.  vulpina.} 

rotundifolia,  9,  310. 

rupestris,  313. 

vinifera,  2,  328. 

vulpina,  314. 
Vulpina  grapes,  13. 

as  direct  producers,  13. 

Wakeman,  Elbert,  mentioned,  136. 

Walter,  443. 

Warren,  382,  401. 

Warrenton,  382. 

Washington,  371. 

Water,     influence     of,     on     climate, 

23. 
Watering,  at  planting,  86. 

in  graperies,  202. 
Water  sprouts  defined,  301. 
Weather     data     and     grape-growing, 

26. 

White  July,  402. 
White  Nice,  for  forcing,  198. 
White  Frontignan,  416. 
Wilder,  444. 
Wilmington  Red,  448. 
Winchell,  445. 
Windbreaks     in     grape-growing,     25, 

27. 
Wine,  aging,  253. 

crushing  grapes  for,  252. 

fermentation  of,  253. 

fining,  253. 

kinds  of,  251. 

racking,  253. 

yeasts  for,  253. 

Wine-grapes,  prices  paid  for,  255. 
Wine-making,  252. 
Wire  for  trellises,  121. 
Wire  grafting,  54. 
Winter  Grape,  314,  317,  318. 


458 


INDEX 


Winter-killing,  26. 

precautions  against,  295. 
Winter  protection  of  grapes,  187,  294. 

cost  of,  296. 
Winter-pruning,  114. 
Woodruff,  446. 
Woodward,  391. 
Worden,  446. 


Worthington,  15,  350. 
Wyoming,  448. 
Wyoming  Red,  448. 

Yields  in  fertilizer  experiments,    100, 

101. 
Y-trunk  Kniffin  training,  136. 


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